
Class J5Ei^ 
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COP)CRIGHT DEPOSm 



/ 

Elemei^tary Psychology, _ 



WITH 



Practical Applications to Education and 
Conduct of Life, 



An Outline of Logic. 



for the use of 

High Schools, Nohmal Schools and Academies, 
Teacheks and the General Header. 



BY 

JAMES Il'WkER, A.m., 

Principal of High School, District No. 1, Denver. 




NEW YOKK: 

Effingham Maynaed <fe Co., Publishers, 

7T1 Broadwa-T and 67 & 69 Ninth Street. 
1890. 



/ 

Eleme^taiiy Psychology, 



A-y.'^- 



3 J 

WITH '^' 

Peactical Applications to Education and 
Conduct of Life, 

INCLUDING 

An Outline of Logic. 



for, the use of 

High Schools, Nokmal Schools and Academies, 
Teachers and the General Reader, 



BY 

JAMES IL "baker, A.m., 

Principal of High School, District No. 1, Denver. 




NEW YORK: 
Effingham Maynard <fe Co., Publishers, 

771 Broadway and 67 & 69 Ninth Street. 
1890. 



-,\ 






Copyright, 1890, 
By EFFINGHAM MAYNARD & CO. 



PREFACE. 



This work is an attempt to present, with applica- 
tions, the more important principles of Psychology in 
a clear and concise form, arranged for High and Nor- 
mal schools and adapted to the use of teachers and 
the general reader. 

The plan of the work, formed several years since, 
and pursued throughout the period of its preparatidii, 
is as follows : 

1. The topics are selected for their essential impor- 
tance, and are treated concisely. 

2. Such metaphysical discussion as does not belong 
to an elementary work is omitted or placed in foot- 
notes. The importance of Physiological Psychology 
is duly regarded. 

3. Practical applications of the science are made to 
Education and the Conduct of Life. 

4. In connection with Thinking an outline of Logic 
is presented. 

5. The presentation of many of the topics is induc- 
tive in the sense that typical instances precede the 
statement of principles. For emphasis and conven- 
ience the definitions and many principles, summaries, 
and inferences are printed in different type. > 

6. For fuller views on some of the topics and for 

3 



Preface, 



comparison of opinions, references are made to a brief 
list of available works. 

7. Exercises, calculated to test the skill and invite 
the research of the student, are placed at the end of 
each subject. 

The author believes that Practical Psychology has 
a place in Secondary Schools generally as well as in 
Normal Schools, because so many of the students of 
these schools complete their formal education in them, 
and because so many of them become teachers. In 
the experience of life every one is in some way a 
teacher, and every one should have in view at least 
the further development of his own powers. 

This work was carefully read in manuscript by B. 
F. Hayes, D.D., Professor of Psychology and Logic in 
Bates College, and the " Applications" were reviewed 
by one of the most distinguished exponents, in this 
country, of sound educational theory. The author is 
indebted to these gentlemen for valuable suggestions ; 
he however holds himself responsible for whatever 
views are presented in the work. 

Many of the volumes referred to in the preparation 
of this book are mentioned in the list for reference, 
hence no further acknowledgment of indebtedness to 
authors is needed than the list itself, and the numer- 
ous references in the foot-notes. 

The library of every school in which Psychology is 
taught should contain at least the shorter list of refer- 
ence books upon the subject. Before beginning this 
work the pupil is supposed to have studied Hutchison's 
Physiology, or its equivalent. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

1. If the time allotted for tlie study permit, the 
pupil should refer to the authorities indicated iu the 
foot-notes and report his investigations in class; if 
desired, other authors may readily be substituted for 
those noted. 

2. In many instances the "Applications" should be 
referred to the principles which they apply ; this work 
is facilitated by the cross-references between topics 
and applications. 

3. The " Exercises" may be increased at the discre- 
tion of the teacher. It would be well to mark out 
illustrative work for each method of Psychological 
inquiry (see p. 19), and use it as progress in the study 
may require. 

Additional exercises in Introspection will readily sug- 
gest themselves. 

Study through the ivords and acts of others may be 
illustrated by comparing one's own experience with 
that of others under similar conditions ; by observing 
the deeds of others in given circumstances ; by noting 
the effect upon expression of success, of a harsh word, 
of a smile, etc., etc. 

Study of Children may be successfully invited. Let 
the pupil observe or learn of early instances of well- 
defined perception, of implicit judgment, of implicit 
reasoning. 

Study through Biography, History ami Literature is 

5 



Suggestions to Teachers. - 



easy to illustrate. From results in character infer the 
motives of some noted man ; conjecture liis emotional 
life as determined by certain events ; read autobio- 
graphical sketches. Analyze the spirit of the French 
people just preceding the Eevolution. Select passages, 
showing a profound knowledge of the human mind, 
from the play of " Hamlet ;" learn what is implied as 
to the beliefs of men by their use of common psycho- 
logical terms. 

For Physiological Study observe for instance the 
effect of fatigue upon memory. 

In connection with the " Applications" Discussion 
of the Theory and Practice of Teaching may be carried 
to any extent. 

While work of the kind suggested above is an essen- 
tial part of the true method in Psychology, it should 
not be regarded as in any sense a substitute for sys- 
tematic text-book work. 

4. The sections numbered 59, 60, 65-69, 72-87 are 
devoted to Logic ; it is thought that most schools will 
desire to use the amount of Logic here presented. 
The belief is growing that no course of secondary in- 
struction is complete which omits the principles and 
forms of Logic and examples of the fallacies into which 
people are easily led. It is hoped that this feature of 
the book will esj)ecially recommend it. In connection 
with this outline some such work as Jevons' Primer 
of Logic, in the hands of the teacher, wdll prove sug- 
gestive and helpful. 

5. The " Table of Contents" is a complete analysis of 
the whole subject by sections and paragraphs, and it 
may be followed in formal recitation. 



CONTENTS 



INTRODUCTORY TOPICS. 

PAGE 

1. Nature of the Study. External World and Internal 
World. Mind and Psychology defined 17 

2. Method? of Study. Mental acts objects of study. 
Subjective method. Other methods. Summary 18 

3. The Nervous System. Nerve-fibers, Nerve-cells, Ganglia, 
Nerve-centers. Cerebrum, "Basal Ganglia," Cerebellum, Me- 
dulla Oblongata, Spinal Cord, Sympathetic System. Course of 
impressions ; Cerebrum and " Retiex Apparatus ;" Sensorium and 
Motorium ; physical acts not involving mental acts 19 

4. Mind and Body (7). Knowledge of their connection nec- 
essary. Expression. The mind affects the body. The body 
affects the mind. Mental activities accompanied by nervous 
expenditure. Mental action distinguished from the nervous 
accompaniment 27 

5. Habit (8). Influence of habit in bodily movements. Men- 
tal habit 30 

6. Factors in Mental Growth (9).* Growth of the individual 
influenced by what? Internal and External factors in Educa- 
tion 31 

APPLICATIONS. 

7. A Sound Mind in a Sound Body (4). Law of the expen- 
diture of energy. Growth of the child. Ideal physical basis . 33 

8. Habit in Education (5). Necessity of forming good hab- 
its. Bodily habits which are to be cultivated. Some of the 
more important mental habits. Educational value of the re- 
straints of the school-room; precept and practice 33 

9. Influences. Natural Growth (6). Guarding against wrong 
influence; eradicating the effect of previous influence. Natural 
development to be permitted as far as pos.sible 35 

EXERCISES 36 

CONSCIOUSNESS AND ATTENTION. 
MENTAL ACTIVITIES. 

10. Consciousness. Nature and definition. Objects of con- 
sciousness. Unconscious mental activity 38 

11. Attention Defined. Voluntary attention. Non- Volun- 
tary attention 40 

7 



8 Contents. 



PAGE 

12. Stimulus of Attention (16). Act of attention not un- 
caused; examples; statement of principles 41 

13. Conditions Unfavorable to Attention (17). Examples. 
Summary of unfavorable conditions 42 

14. Growth and Power of Attention (16, 18). Attention of 
the young child. Growth of Voluntary Attention. Results of 
Attention. High development of the power 43 

15. Kinds of Mental Activity (19). Three kinds of activity. 
Theory of mental faculties. Order and relation of the three 
activities 45 

applicatio:ns. 

16. Attention in Eerly Years. Appropriate Stimulus (12, 
14). Child's activity; agreeable tasks; pain as motive. Addi- 
tional applications 46 

17. Difficulties in the Way of Attention (13). Types of in- 
attentive pupils. Common mistakes in methods. Enforced 
attention 47 

18. Importance of Attention. Motives (14). Inattention 
not to be permitted. The uninteresting to be faced finally. 
Cultivation of motives; common motives 48 

19. Relation of Psychology to Education (15) 50 

EXERCISES o . 50 



KNOWING (THE INTELLECT). 

PRESENTATION (PERCEPTION). 

20. Kinds of Intellectual Activity (30). Illustrations and 
classification. Relation of Perception to the other intellectual 
faculties 52 

21. Sensation. Sensations enumerated and classed. Their or- 
gans described. Conditions of sensation; excitants 53 

22. Perception Explained and Defined. We learn by expe- 
rience to interpret sensations. First consciousness of the child; 
pure sensation. Nature of Perception. Diagram showing rela- 
tion of Perception to Sensation .- . . 55 

23. Growth of Perception: Tactile and Muscular Map. 
First steps in Perception. Experiments and summary ... 58 

24. p-rowth of Perception : Visual Map (31). Transcription 
from the Tactile and Muscular to the Visual Map. How we 
locate objects by sight, determine their size, movement, etc. 
How objects known to touch may be recognized by color, shad- 
ing, etc 59 

25. Growth of Perception : Hearing, Taste, and Smell. Ac- 
quired perception in case of Hearing. Perception through 
Taste. Perception through the sense of Smell 61 

26. Percept, Image 62 

27. Elements of Perception 63 



Contents. 



PAGE 

28. Necessary Ideas. Illustrations. List. Tests. Summary 63 

29. Difference and Agreement. Educationof the Senses (31) 65 

APPLICATIONS. 

30. Activity of Childhood in Relation to Perception. Kin- 
dergarten Methods (17, 20). Activity of childhood a process 
of education. Growth of mind before the period of school life. 
-Kindergarten methods philosophical 66 

31. Cultivation of Discriminative Power. Distinct Images 
(24, 29). Act of discrimination pleasurable; means of cultiva- 
tion vv^ith respect to color, figure, size, form, and distance. 
JMaming, drawing, etc. Relation of distinct images to the higher 
intellectual faculties 68 

32. Principles Applied to the Various Branches of Study. 
Schools to employ Nature's methods. Heading, Number, Geog- 
raphy, History, Science, Psychology 70 

EXERCISES. 71 

REPRESENTATION. 

INTRODUCTION. 

33. Nature of Representation. Illustration. Nature. Defi- 
nition. Representation and Perception ; Representation and 
higher processes 73 

34. Varieties of Representation. Examples. Delinitions . 70 

35. Differences and Agreements in Representation (53, i). 
Difference and agreement as condition of Retentiveness; dif- 
ference and agreement involved in Representation 76 

MEMORY. 

36. Primary Laws of Association (53, 2-4). Example of se- 
quence in memory. Law of Resemblance; of Contrast; of Con- 
tiguity; of Cause and Efiect. How natural and incidental asso- 
ciations in acquisition become the principles of association in 
Memory; Dr. Porter's statement of the comprehensive principle 

of association. Bain's statement of the principle 77 

37. Secondary Laws of Association (53, sio). Some asso- 
ciated ideas more likely to be recalled than others. The Secon- 
dary Laws Sumnuxry. Diagram 80 

38. The Principle of Contiguity Applied to Aggregates, 
Movements, Auditory and Visual Trains, Parallel Trains . . 83 

39. Language (53, ii). Knowdedge seeks sensible expression. 
Words and Images. Language and Thinking 84 

40. Memory Necessary to the Idea of Time 86 

41. Varieties of Memory (53, 12-15). The kind of memory 
due to what; remarkable visual and auditory Memory; Ready 
Memory; Retentive Memory. Circumstantial Memory. Philo- 
sophical Memory 87 

42. Permanent Acquisition at Different Periods of Life. In 



10 Contents. 



PAGE 

youth and old age. Bain's view of the proper age for different 
acquisitions 88 

43. Power and Cultivation of Memory (53, 16-17). Pascal; 
possibility of recalling all the experience of the past. Conditions 
of Memory. Memory improved by exercise. In advanced years 
memory aided by previous knowledge 89 

PHANTASY. 

44. Illustrations. Summary. Day-dreams. Sleep, Somnam- 
bulism. Delirium, Insanity. Summary 91 

45. Hallucinations. Examples not amounting to hallucina- 
tion. Hallucination explained 93 

46. Laws of Association in Phantasy 94 

IMAGINATION, 

47. Illustrations and Definition. Characteristics .... 95 

48. Cognitive Imagination (54. i) 96 

49. Inventive or Philosophic Imagination (54, 2) . . . .97 
50- .Esthetic or Poetic Imagination (54, 3 4). The architect, 

musician, sculptor, painter, poet 98 

51. The Ethical Imagination. The Perfect 98 

52. Growth of Imagination (.54, 5). Imagination of children; 
taste. Cultivated in any direction 99 

APPLICATIONS. 

53. Principles of Memory Applied, i (35). Clear appre- 
hension a condition of memory. 2 (36). Noting resemblance 
and contrast aids the memory. 3 (36) Study in logical order. 

4 (36). Questioning may form important bonds of association. 

5 (37). Attention the condition of memory. 6 (37). Length of 
lessons, emphasis, repetition. 7 (37). Bodily vigor and memory. 
8 (37). Expressing ideas fixes them. 9(37). Repetition. 10 (37). 
Interest. 11 (39). Memory of ideas not of words. 12 (41). Econ- 
omy of memory. 13 (41). Memory of principles; Memory of 
important things. i4(4l). Value of 'forgotten knowledge. 15 
(41). When to employ absolute memory. 16 (43). Mnemonics. 

17 (43). Value of a well-stored memory 99 

54. Applications of the Facts and Principles of the Imagina- 
tion. 1 (48). Description ; construct the unknown from tlie 
known. 2 (49). Education of the inventive imagination. 3 (50). 
Value of tales and mythology. 4 (50). Value of ideals. 5 (52). 
Abuse of the imagination 103 

EXERCISES 105 

THINKING. 

INTRODUCTION. 

55. The Processes. Definitions. Recapitulation^ Concep- 
tion. Judgment. Reasoning. These processes the essential 



Contents, 11 



PAGE 

ones iu Thinking. Definitions. Products of the various activi- 
ties 108 

56. Thinking Considers Relations 110 

CONCEPTION. 

57. The Processes. The Concept. Illustration. The men- 
tal reality correspoudiug to a general term; definition of con- 
cept. Abstract notions ..... c Ill 

58. Growth of the Power (88, 89). Examples of early use of 
the power. Further development. Conceptual power of the 
uneducated , 112 

59. Scientific Classification. Example from Zoology. Cross- 
Divisions. Diagram. Advantages of Classification^ .... 113 

60. Content and Extent 116 

61. Use of Language in Thinking. Names and classes. Use 
of language in judgment and reasoning; abstract notions. Lan- 
guage sometimes inadequate „ 117 

62. Abuse of Words. Clearness of Concepts (90, 91) Con- 
ditions occasioning confusion in the use of language. Exam- 
ples of words that may lead to confusion. How to avoid error 

in the use of words 118 

JUDGMENT. 

63. Nature and Growth of Judgment (88, 89) 120 

64. Beliefs. Sources of Belief. Prejudice. Experience . 121 

65. Terms. Meaning of "Term." Singular, General, and 
Collective Terms. Concrete and Abstract Terms. Positive and 
Negative Terms. Test examples 122 

66. The Proposition, Analysis of. The elements of a propo- 
sition. Instances in which the three elements are not apparent 123 

67. Categorical, Hypothetical, and Disjunctive Proposi- 
tions. Kinds of Categorical Propositions 124 

68. Distribution of Terms. The universal affirmative. The 
universal negative. The particular affirmative. The particular 
negative. Summary . 125 

69. Implied Judgments. Opposition. Diagram of the rela- 
tions of Opposition. Contrary Opposition. Subalternation. 
Contradictory Opposition. Conversion of Propositions. By limi- 
tation. Simple Conversion. Conversion by Negation. Addition 
of ISuhject and Predicate. Addition of Marks. Privative Concep- 
tion. Importance of studying Implied Judgments 128 

REASONING. 
INTRODUCTION. 

70. Nature of Reasoning. Deduction; The Syllogism; In- 
duction. Office of each intellectual power; office of Reason. . 131 

71. Growth of Reasoning (88, 89) 133 

72. Use of Logic 134 



12 Contents. 



PAGE 
DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 

73. Nature and Form of the Syllogism. Canons. Example; 
terms applied to the parts of a S}' llogism. The canons explained 
and Staled 134 

74. Rules of the Syllogism. Rules stated. Rules applied to 
test typical example. Logical Fallacies. Violations of Rule 1 : 
Fallacy of More than Three Terms; Fallacy of Equivocation; 
Fallacy of Composition; Fallacy of Division. Bide II. Rule 
HI: Fallacy of Undistributed Middle. Rule IV: Fallacy of 
Illicit Process of Major or Minor Term. Rule V: Fallacy of 
Negative Premises. Rule VI. Rule VII. Rule VIII . . . .136 

75. Moods. Figures. Sixty-four moods. Three Figures. 
Why omitted 142 

76. The Enthymeme . 143 

77. Hypothetical Syllogism. Three classes of propositions; 
Constructive Hypothetical Syllogism; Destructive Hypotheti- 
cal Syllogism; rule. Fallacy of Conditionals. Stated in cate- 
gorical form 143 

78. Disjunctive Syllogism. Affirmative mood ; Negative 
mood. Principle of Disjunctive Syllogism. Stated in categori- 
cal form 144 

79. Dilemma. Simple Constructive form; Complex Con- 
structive; Simple Destructive; Complex Destructive. Horns of 

the Dilemma; additional alternative 145 

80. Material Fallacies. General statement. Fallacia Acci- 
dentis. Fallacy of Shifting Ground; Fallacy of Many Ques- 
tions. Petitio Principii; Question-Begging Epithets. Igno- 
ratio Elenchi; Argumentum ad Hominem; Argumentum ad 
Populum. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam; Fallacy as to Burden 

of Proof; Argument from Consequences 147 

EXERCISES IX DEDUCTIVE REASONING. . . .150 
INDUCTIVE REASONING. 

81. Nature of Induction. Origin of the premises used in 
Deduction; definition of Induction^ History of Induction . . 151 

82. The Processes Named "Perfect Induction," "Mathe- 
matical Induction," and " Colligation of Facts," as Viewed by 
Mill. Distinction made b}^ Mr. Mill. Perfect Induction, 
Mathematical Induction. Colligation of Facts 158 

83. Logical Induction. Examples; ground of induction. Cer- 
tainty in this form of reasoning; examples of error. Definition 154 

84. Analogy. Examples ; formula for Analogy. Degree of 
probability 156 

85. Complete Logical Induction. Franklin's experiment; 
Newton's discovery; the four processes. Many hypotheses 
sometimes employed 157 

86. Cause. Canons of Induction. Antecedent and cause ; 
definition. The five methods of inferring ca\ises. Method of 
Agreement. Method of Difterence. Joint jNIethod. Method of 
Residues. Method of concomitant Variations 158 



Contents. 13 



PAGE 

87. Fallacies of Induction (91). Fallacies of Observation: 
Non-observation; Mal-observation. Fallacies of Generalization: 
Simple Enumeration ; Post Hoc, ergo propter Hoc; False 
Analogy 160 

EXERCISES IN IIVDUCTIVE REASONING 162 

APPLICATIONS. 

88. The Training of Mental Faculty in the Schools (58, 
63, 71). Primary School Period. Grammar School Period. 
Pligh School Period. General conclusions 163 

89. Some Points in Cultivating the Power of Thought (58, 
63, 71). From the Particular to the Abstract and (feueral. 
From the Simple to the Complex. Teach the pupil to think 
and do for himself. Simple examples of deduction and induc- 
tion. Analysis and Synthesis 165 

90. Training in the Use of Words (62) 168 

91. Avoiding the Common Sources of Error in Reasoning 

62, 87). Causes of defective reasoning; means of correction . 169 

EXERCISES 169 

FEELING. 

INTRODUCTION. 

92. Nature of Feeling. Definition. Classes. Agreeable and 
Disagreeable 171 

93. Relation to Knowledge 172 

94. Relation of Feeling to Activity (120). Hamilton's The- 
ory. Examples. Application to education and to all activity . 172 

95. Laws of Intensity (120). Laws stated. Illustration of 
first. Illustration of second. Illustration of third. Illustration 

of fourth 173 

96. Expression 175 

SENSATIONS. 

97. Classification of Sensations 176 

98. Importance of the Sensations (121). Natural and ac- 
quired appetites. Muscular action; Nervousness. Vital Sensa- 
tions. Special Sensations. Relation of Physical Feelings to 
education 177 

THE EMOTIONS. 

99. Nature of the Emotions (122). Definition. Effect of 
expression. Relation of Emotion to Attention and Memory. 
Emotion and action. Emotion and habit. Emotions classed as 
Retrospective, etc. 179 

100. Classification. A practical method of classification 
adopted. Typical examples. Table , 180 



14 Contents. 



EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 

101. Nature (123) 182 

102. Some Important Egoistic Emotions (123). Joys and 
Sorrows; Content and Discontent; Pride and Humiliation; Sat- 
isfaction and Regret; Hope and Fear 182 

ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 

103. Sympathy — Antipathy (124). Nature of sympathy. 
Sympathy mutual. Influence of sympathy. Growth of sym- 
pathy. Nature of antipathy 184 

104. Love — Hate (124). Growth of Love. Love an avenue 
for influence. Forms of love; nature of love. Origin of Hate; 
Rivalry unworthy. Commendable emulation. Benevolence, 
Malevolence 185 

INTELLECTUAL EMOTIONS. 

105. Emotions of Curiosity , . 187 

106. Knowledge Emotions 187 

107. Truth Emotions • . 188 

108. Growth of Love for Knowledge (125) 188 

^S'^HETIC EMOTIONS. 

109. Nature. Kinds 189 

110. Emotions of Beauty. Nature of Beauty. Examples of 
beautiful objects. No definition. Things which contribute to 
emotions of Beauty. Beauty subjective or objective .... 190 

111. Beauty in Art and Nature. Architecture; sculpture; 
painting; music. Poetry; patriotism; associations. Beauty in 
nature 192 

112. Taste. Judgment an element. Standard of Taste. Deti- 
nitions 193 

113. Emotions of Sublimity 193 

114. Emotions of the Ludicrous. Incongruity the principle. 
Wit and humor 1 94 

115. Growth of .flGsthetio Emotion (126). Sense of the Ludi- 
crous. Sense of the Beautiful • . . 195 

ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 

116. Nature. Classes 195 

117. Conscience (127). Definition, Its Growth. Practice 
the Right 196 

118. Standard of Conscience. Binding Force of Conscience. 
Agreement about essential principles of conduct. The Golden 
Rule; remorse 197 

DESIRES. 

119. The Desires .199 



Contents. 15 



PAGE 
APPLICATIONS. 

120. Self-Activity. The Principle of Novelty (94, 95) . . 200 

121. The Physical Feelings in Relation to Education (98) 201 

122. The Principles of the Emotions Applied to Education 

(99). Some emotions to be educated, others repressed. Signs of 
wrong emotion; listless pupils; habit; temperaments .... 201 

123. Education of the Personal Emotions (101, 102). Ap- 
probation, Self-esteem; Pride; Censure. Hope; Fear . . . 202 

124. Sympathy. Rivalry (103. 104). Effect of liarshness, of 
sympathy, of love. Special means of cultivating sympathy. 
Rivalry; Prizes; Anger 203 

125. Desire for Knowledge (105-108) 204 

126. Means of Cultivating the .Esthetic Emotions (115). 
Neatness, care, etc. Poetry, literature, art, nature 205 

127. Education of the Moral Feelings (117). Means as given 
by Sully. Authority. Sympathy, Love, and Respect. Com- 
panions and surroundings. Moral instruction. Reaction of 
wrong-doing 205 

EXERCISES 207 

WILLING. 

128. Nature of Will ; Elements. Definition of Will. Terms 
representing elements of Will. Illustration; relation between 
Knowing, Steeling, and Willing. Elements of Will and their 
relation to each other 209 

129. Desire as Motive. Desire based upon the fact that 
emotions are agreeable or disagreeable. Representation the 
basis of Desire. Conflict of desires; Deliberation, choice, post- 
ponement of execution. Obligation as opposed to selfish Desire 210 

130. Non- Voluntary Movements . .« 212 

131. Development of Will (136, 137, 138, 139). Through 
spontaneous movement and accidental association. Through 
Imitation. Through Authority. Through free choice of mo- 
tives. Summary.' 213 

132. Will and Habit (137, 138). Influence of will in form- 
ing bodily habit and reaction of bodily habit on will; impor- 
tance of Order and Regularity. Influence of an atmosphere of 
Duty, Justice, and Sympathy. All acts of will tend to become 
habitual 214 

133. Self-Control. Character. Influence 215 

134. Perseverance. Firmness 217 

135. Freedom of Will. General View. Arguments for and 
against 218 

APPLICATIOIfS. 

136. Activity of Children (131). Activity; restraint . . .219 

137. Example (131, 132). Effect of a healthful or unhealth- 
ful atmosphere; character fortified by good habit; moral ideas 
may be implanted early. Example of teacher; sentiment of the 
school; deception on the part of a teacher 220 



16 Contents. 



PAGE 

138. Authority (131, 132). Why authority must be used; in- 
dulgence. Chiding; prompt obedience; consistency. Certainty 
of punishment; according to the offense; "spoilt" children; 
motive and result of persistence to be considered. Excessive 
use of authority 220 

139. Motives (131). Will to be invited by motives; some 
motives mentioned. Praise and blame; blame in private. Un- 
wise sympathy. Picturing results. The child with his faults 
and undeveloped powers placed in the hands of the teacher; 
work of the teacher 223 

140. Self-Oontrol * . 224 

exercises 224 

Psychical Activities Classified 236 

APPENDIX. 
THE INTUITIONS. 

List c^p Books to which Eefeeences aee Made. 

* The Human Intellect.— Noah Porter. n 

* Outliaes of Psychology.— James Sully. 

* Lectures on Metaphysics.— Sir William Hamilton. 

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. — John Locke. 
On Intelligence.— H. Taine. 

* Mental Science.— Alexander Bain. 

The Principles of Psychology.— Herbert Spencer. 

The Cognitive Powers.— James McCosh. 

Introduction to Psychological Theory.— Borden P. Bowne, 

The Intuitions of the Mind.— James McCosh. 

The Motive Powers.— James McCosh. 

* Philosophical Basis of Theism. — Samuel Harris. 

A Vocabulary of the Philosophical Sciences.— Krauth-Fleming. 

* Principles of Mental Physiology.— William B. Carpenter. 

* Elements of Physiological Psychology.— George T. Ladd. 
Mind and Body. — Alexander Bain. 

The Brain and its Functions. — J. Luys. 

The Brain as an Organ of Mind. — H. Charlton Bastian. 



A System of Logic— John Stuart Mill. 
* The Elements of Logic— W. Stanley Jevons. 
The Laws of Discui'sive Thought.— James McCosh. 
Science of Thought.— F. Max MuUer. 



* E.ducation. — Herbert Spencer. 

* Education as a Science.— Alexander Bain. 

* The Philosophy of Education. — Rosenkranz. (Trans, by Anna C. Brackett, 

edited byWm. T. Harris.) 

* Lectures on Teaching.- J. G. Fitch. 

Life and Educational Works of Comenius.— S. S. Laurie. 

* Locke on Education.— (Edited by R. H. Quick.) 

Habit in Education. — Paul Radestock. (Trans, by Caspftri, introduction by G. 
Stanley Hall.) 
Emile.— Jean Jacques Rousseau. (Trans, by Eleanor Worthington.) 
Levana. — Richter. (Trans.) 
The Philosophy of Education ,—T. Tate. (Introd. by Francis W. Parker.) 

* Elements of Pedagogy.— Emerson E. White. 

* As a short list of books for reference these are recommended. 



PSYCHOLOGY. 



INTRODUCTORY TOPICS. 

1. Nature of the Study.' The sun and stars, the 
solid earth and the fluid air, houses, trees, and ani- 
mals, our own bodies, indeed all the objects which 
make up the External World, may be classed together 
under the one name Object or Matter. Thf Internal 
World which is affected by these objects and perceives 
them may be called Subject or Mind.'^ 

We do not know the nature of matter, but we define 
it by its properties thus : Matter is that which has 
extension, impenetrability, inertia. Botany, Physics, 
Astronomy, etc., are objective sciences which treat of 
the External World. We do not know the nature of 
mind, but in like manner we may define it by its prop- 
erties or powers : Mind is that which knows, feels, and 
wills. 

Psychology is the science which treats of the Human 
Mind.^ 

^Bain, In trod., Chap. I. 

' The Internal World is variously designated as Subject, Mind, 
Ego, and Self; the External World as Object, Matter, Non-Ego, 
and Not-Self. 

^ In accordance with common practice Mind is here used in the 
sense in which Soul is employed by some writers. The term Psy- 
chology is from the Greek words, psyche^ soul, and logos ^ dis' 
course, 

17 



18 Psycliology. 



2. Methods of Study.' Sliut out, as far as possible, 
the External World, and look within upon the World of 
Mind ; note what is passing there and recall what 
preceded. You have surprised some fleeting thought 
or fancy ; you are aware of variotis bodily sensations, 
and of sights and sounds affecting the mind ; you re- 
call some wish or a half -forgotten determination. On 
this mental field constantly remembrance, fancy, 
thought, and choice follow in rapid sequence ; hope 
or fear may arise, claim the attention for a moment, 
and vanish or merge into a state of gladness or melan- 
choly. These processes may be made as truly objects 
of observation and study as experiments in Physics 
or specimens in Botany ; our mental acts and states 
may be known and classified. 

When studying an objective science, as Botany or 
Physics, we examine specimens or observe experiments 
through the senses, and we may continue our examina- 
tion or repeat our experiments at will. In the experi- 
mental study of Psychology the mind as it were looks 
within and observes its own acts and states. This 
method of introspection is at first difficult, but be- 
comes easier by practice. Our mental acts are so 
fleeting and are so disturbed by an attempt to observe 
them that another difficulty is added to the study, but 
memory comes to our assistance and brings back our 
past mental experiences. This method of study just 
described is the subjective or introspective. 

In addition to the subjective method ^we may study 
the minds of others through their words and acts ; we 
may trace the growth of the child's mind; we may 

^ Bead Sully's Outlines, Appendix A. 



Introductory Topics. 19 

learn the traits, motives, and beliefs of men from 
biography, history, and literature ; besides, we may 
learn from Physiology much concerning the physical 
conditions of mental phenomena. 

Facts about the mind gathered in these ways and 
classified constitute the subject-matter of Psychology. 

Subjective or Introspec- 
tive. 



Methods 

of 

Studying 

Mind. 



Objective. 



Through the words and 

acts of others. 
Through observation of 
children. 
I Through Biography, His- 
1^ tory, and Literature. 



Physiological. 

3. The Nervous System.^ It is necessary to study 
briefly the instrument by which the mind communi- 
cates with the External World, namely, the Nervous 
System. The elements of the nervous system are 
nerve-fibers and nerve-cells. The nerve-fibers consti- 
tute the " white " matter of the nervous system, and 
the nerve- cells the " gray " matter. 

A Nerve-fiber (Fig. 1) usually consists of three 
parts, an extremely thin outer membrane, a white, 
semi-liquid sheath, and a translucent axis c^dinder. 
Nerve-fibers vary in diameter from y^^q-q to -j^-^-q of 
an inch. They serve as lines of connection, uniting 

^ If desired this section can be omitted ; but the author be- 
lieves that it is a necessary preparation for understanding some 
of the principles of Ps^^chology. The technical terms are few, 
important and v^^ell-known in Physiology. 

On this subject read Ladd and also Bastian, referring to index 
for points treated. Refer to Luys, Part I, Chaps. IV, V, and 
VI. Additional reference may be made to Carpenter, Bk. I, 
Chap. II, § 4 ; Spencer, Vol. I, Part I, Chap. Ill; Taine, Part I, 
Bk. IV, Chap. I. 



20 



Psychology. 








Introductory Topics. 



21 




oO >< S 2 --^Jfl 
11 11 53 ^ 1 



I f^ l.0^' 



*^ c 



£j 



Cj 3— .-o -SO 



^ p 03 c ^ >>^ J^ o o 5 >^ a3 ^^ 



^ 





I- £ 0) o t^ "^ 

i-.2c£a >. 

^ 13 a; 3 o3 
■M »^0 03 ^ ej 



22 PsycJiology. 



nerve centers and communicating with sense organs, as 
tlie eye and ear, and with motor organs, as the muscles 
moving the arms. Their office is not to originate 
but to transmit "nerve-commotion." There are. two 
classes, sensory, also called afferent,' in-carrying, which 
convey impressions from the sense organs to nerve 
centers, and motor, also called efferent, out-carrying, 
which transmit motor impulses from nerve centers to 
muscles. 

A Nerve-cell (Fig. 2) is a granular body with a large 
nucleus and a distinct small nucleus or "nucleolus." 
One or more projections or "processes" branch from 
the body of each cell serving to attach cells to each 
other and to nerve-fibers. Nerve-cells vary in size 
from g^Vo^ to ^\-Q of an inch. 

A G-anglion (Fig. 3) is a group of nerve-cells with 
their interlacing fibers, forming a nodule. A group of 
nerve-cells connected with sensory nerve-fibers is 
called a sensory ganglion ; a group connected with 
motor fibers is called a motor ganglion. 

A Nerve Center is the union of a motor group and 
a sensory group, forming a compound ganglion. One 
function of a nerve center is to change a sensory wave, 
moving along afferent fibers from a sense organ, in- 
to a motor impulse, directed along efferent fibers to 
the muscles. In this case the wave is said to be re- 
flected from the nerve center to the muscles and 
the action is called reflex. Eeflex action is seen if 
a person in profound slumber withdraws his hand 
when it is pricked. The principal nerve centers, 

^ All sensory nerves are afferent^ but not all afferent nerves 
are sensory. 



Introductory Topics. 23 

beginning with tlie highest, are the Cerebrum^ the 
^' Basal Ganglia'' {Optic Thalami and Corpora Striata), 
the Cerebellum, the 3Iedulla Oblongata, the Spinal 
Cord and the Sympathetic Ganglia. 

The Nerve Centers and their functions are thus 
described by physiologists : 

Cerebrum (Figs. 4, 6 and 7). The cerebrum, the 
supreme nerve center, is situated in the upper portion 
of the skull. It is nearly divided into two hemi- 
spheres. Each hemisj)liere consists of white matter, 
composed of nerve-fibers, and an outer coat of gray 
matter from J^ to ^ of an inch thick called the Cortex. 
This cortex may be regarded as a great ganglion com- 
posed of man}^ fused ganglia. It has been estimated 
that there are a billion nerve-cells and five billion 
nerve-fibers in the entire brain. 

Functions. The cerebrum is the seat and imme- 
diate organ of the mind. Impressions from the external 
world, acting along afferent nerve-fibers and causing 
disturbances in the nerve- cells of the cortex, in some 
unknown way affect the mind. The mind acting 
through the cerebrum has supreme control of all the 
voluntary movements of the body. 

Basal Ganglia ((a) Optic Thalami and (b) Corpora 
Striata, " Striate Bodies " ) (Figs. 5 and 8). 

(a) The Optic Thalami are reddish, egg-shaped 
bodies situated at the center of the brain, (b) The 
Striate Bodies are gray, pear-shaped masses each 
situated in the center of its hemisphere. The nerve- 
fibers emerging from the cortex pass into these bodies. 

Functions, (a) The principal work of the Thalami, 
as supposed, is receiving sensory impressions and 
transmitting them, modified, to the cerebral cortex. 



24 Psychology, 



(b) The Striate Bodies are supposed to receive motor 
impulses from the cortex and transmit them, modified, 
to the muscles. 

Cerebellum (Figs. 4 and 5). The cerebellum is situ- 
ated beneath the posterior part of the cerebrum. Its 
surface consists of gray matter and its interior is com- 
posed mainly of white matter. 

Functions. It is supposed by some to aid in regu- 
lating and co-ordinating muscular movements ; by 
others to act as a relay battery and to enforce the 
motor currents going out from the brain. 

Medulla Oblongata (Figs. 4 and 5). The medulla 
oblongata may be regarded as that portion of the 
spinal cord which is contained in the cranial cavity. 

Functions. By reflex action it controls wholly or in 
part the action of the heart, blood-vessels,' lungs, etc. 
It has a share in co-ordinating muscular movements. 

Spinal Cord. The spinal cord is composed of a 
gray axis, consisting of fused ganglia, and connecting 
nerve-fibers and cords. 

Functions. It acts as a conductor to and from the 
brain. It is capable of independent reflex action in 
case of involuntary movements of the limbs and habit- 
ual movements, as walking. By reflex action it exerts 
a certain control over the organs of digestion and nu- 
trition. 

Sympathetic System. The sympathetic system con- 
sists of a double chain of ganglia situated on either 
side of the spinal column. These ganglia are con- 
nected with cranial and spinal nerves and with or- 
gans of the chest and abdomen. 

Functions. By it many organs of the body are 
brought into connection and " sympathy " with each 



Introductory Topics, 



25 



other. By reflex action it controls in part digestion 
and circulation. 

We may now take a general view of tlie Nervous 
System. 

1. Trace the course of a sound impression as shown 
in Fig. 8. Air vibrations occasion wave movement in 
the auditory nerve ; this movement reaches the Thala- 
mus, is modified and advances to the cortical cells. 
The molecular commotion of the nerve-cells in some 
mysterious way finds a response in the mind. The 
mind arouses a motor impulse which moves from the 
cortical cells to the Striate Body, thence advances 
along a motor nerve to the muscles occasioning mo- 
tion. The accompanying diagram will present these 
movements more clearly. It must be noted that 
sensory nerves and ganglia belong to the External 
World. 



Sensor 
Ganglion, 



Sensor 
Nerve. 



Sensor 
Organ. 




2. Remove the Cerebrum from a frog without injury 
to the other organs ; by using excitants, as a pin or an 
acid, he is made to perform all the movements of an 
uninjured frog. There is no sufficient evidence that 
any of these are conscious movements ; they are prob- 
ably wholly reflex.' Examine the facts previously 
given about the nerve centers below the Cerebrum. 



Read Ladd, p. 151, 



26 Psychology. 



The Basal Ganglia, the Cerebellum and the Medulla 
are especially concerned in producing sensation and 
bodily motion. These organs as a whole are supposed 
to be capable of reflex action. The SjDinal Cord is an 
important reflex center, and the Sympathetic System, 
by reflex action, responds to the condition of vital 
organs. Hence the Cerebrum is the seat of Mind. All 
the nerve centers below the Cerebrum constitute the " Reflex 
Apparatus" by which sensation is occasioned and the pro- 
cesses of animal life are sustained. Injury to the Basal 
Ganglia, the Cerebellum or the Medulla is likely to 
produce irregularity of bodily movements, such as 
difficulty in walking. These centers co-ordinate, i.e. har- 
monize muscular movements. 

Seat of Mind. \ Cerebrum. ^ , . \ . 

' ^ Important organs of 

T, 1 ^ T I sensation and mo- 
Basa Ganglia. ^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^^_ 

Cerebellum. ^ ^^^^^^ j^ co-or- 
dination of bodily 
movements. 



Nervous 
System. 



({ 



Reflex Ap-^ 
paratus.'"* 



Spinal Cord. 
Sympathetic System. 

3. The nerves and organs of sensation may be called 

the Sensorium, the nerves and organs of motion the 

Motorium. The parts of the nervous system and the 

immediate organs may be grouped thus : 

-. i Sensor Organs. 

I Sensor ium. \ Sensor Nerves. 



Nervous J ( Sensor Ganglia. 

System. 1 . ( Motor Organs. 

I Motorium. \ Motor Nerves. 

•- ( Motor Ganglia. 

4. As has been said, the mind, acting through the 
cerebrum, may control all the voluntary movements 
of the body. The action for instance of the heart and 
the stomach is involuntary, since it is controlled by 



Introductory Topics. 27 

lower nerve centers. Many liabitual movements, as 
walking, may be intrusted to tlie control of lower 
nerve centers. Many messages from vital and sensor 
organs are answered by lower nerve centers, and do not 
reach the mind ; hence there are many physical acts which 
do not involve mental acts. 

4. Mind and Body ' (7). We have learned that the 
Cerebrum is the seat of Mivd^ and that the whole 
nervous system is the means of communication be- 
tween the mind within and the world without. We are 
prepared to believe, then, that a study of the connec- 
tion between mind and body will furnish interesting 
facts and throw light on the problems of Psychology. 

We speak of an attitude of attention, an angry ges- 
ture, a smile of joy, the frown of disj)leasure, the 
paleness of fear, a glance of tenderness, an expression 
of pain. We may often learn what passes in the 
mind of another from his outward expression. Many 
of our mental acts and states have a natural bodily ex- 
pression. 

Violent emotions quicken the action of the heart ; 
pleasant emotions give a healthy tone to the vital 
organs, while painful emotions derange their action 
and depress the system ; severe and jDrotracted mental 
labor affects the body unfavorably. The body suffers 
with the mind. Mental conditions influence the action of 
the vital organs and may affect the health of the body. 

When the body is supplied with sufficient food of 
good quality, when the digestion is healthy and the 
blood is properly purified by the organs of respiration 

* Kead Bain, Mind and Body, Chap. II; McCosh, The Motive 
Powers, Bk. I, Chap. IV. 



28 Psychology. 



and secretion, then tlie mind tends to act clearly and 
vigorously. When these conditions are wanting the 
mind is usually less vigorous. AVarmth and cold, rest 
and fatigue, stimulants, drugs, injury to the brain, 
affect the mind. In case of physical exhaustion the 
power of the memory is weakened. The state of the 
nerves makes one morose or cheerful. One's moral 
nature may be affected by his phj^sical condition. In- 
sanity is usually attended by abnormal conditions in 
the substance of the brain. Mental action is affected by 
physical conditions. 

Scientific investigation shows that mental acts are 
accompanied by the expenditure of nervous energy. 
In the case of intense and prolonged thought the 
nervous waste is shown by the effect upon the system. 
The nervous action evidently precedes the mental in 
the case of sensation, as in hearing and seeing ; but 
doubtless emotion, as when we receive news of some 
great calamity, and the exercise of the will precede 
the action of the nerves. In its connection with the body 
the action of the mind is accompanied by nervous expendi- 
ture. ' 

Some physiologists conclude that nervous action 
constitutes mental phenomena, instead of being simply 
the attendant of such phenomena while the mind is 
connected with the body. They further conclude that 
there is nothing distinct from the body called Mind or 
Soul which thinks and feels. Let us briefly examine 
this theory. When we speak of weight, extension, 
gravity, etc., we are obliged to think of something un- 
derlying these properties, namely, matter. When we 



^ Sully, p. 3 and p. 9. 



Introductory Topics. 29 

speak of thought, feeling, etc., we are obliged to think 
of something that thinks and feels, namely, mirid. 
We cannot view matter as thinking or feeling ; we 
cannot view mind as possessing weight or extension. 
One class of phenomena has matter as its basis, the 
other class has something different as its basis, and 
we call it mind. If there were not a unit called mind, 
how could there be unified knowledge of all that the 
being whom you call / thinks and feels and does ? 
Some go so far as to say that, as we see the external 
world through the eyes, so the mind, through its 
power of self-knowledge, sees itself and all its activi- 
ties. Moreover, each person feels that there is an 
entity called I which can think and do, a something 
distinct from the body. "We conclude that Thought, 
Emotion, and Will are something different from the nervous 
conditions that accompany them, and that they are mani- 
festations of an entity called Mind.' 

^ Dr. Carpenter, tlie eminent physiologist, says: "The Psychol- 
ogist may fearlessly throw himself into the deepest waters of 
speculative inquiry in regard to the relation between his Mind 
and its Bodily instrument, provided that he trusts to the inherent 
buoyancy of that great fact of Consciousness, that we have within 
us a self -deter mining Power which we call Will. And he may 
even find in the evidence of the intimate relation between Mental 
Activity and Physical changes in the Brain, the most satis- 
factory grounds which science can afford for his belief that the 
phenomena of the Material Universe are the expressions of an 
Infinite Mind and Will, of which Man's is the finite representa- 
tive." 

Prof. Ladd in his Physiological Psychology says: "The sub- 
ject of all the states of consciousness is a real unit-being, called 
Mind; which is of non-material nature, and acts and develops 
according to laws of its own, but is specially correlated with cer- 



30 Psycliology. 



6. Habit' (8). Nothing is better known tlian tlie 
fact that bodily movements become easier by repeti- 
tion. Learning to walk is a laborious process, but 
after a time the complex muscular movements used 
in walking are easily and accurately performed. The 
gait, attitudes and gestures permitted and practiced 
in childhood become a part of the child's nature and 
later are employed unconsciously. The series of 
movements in the practice of any occupation requir- 
ing dexterity, as playing a musical instrument, draw- 
ing, etc., become so adjusted as to follow each other 
with ease and regularity. The theory is that every 
bodily movement creates a tendency, in the structure of 
the reflex nerve centers, to repeat the same movement 
or series of movements. 

When acquiring bodily skill, the mind is the direc- 
tive power, and the mind acquires skill in ordering 
complicated series of movements, and in discriminat- 
ing the sensations by which the accuracy of the move- 
ments is tested — in short, the mind acquires habit. 
The same fact is observed in all exercise of mental 
power. Mental images of some object frequently 
seen or thought of readily recur to the mind ; trains 
of thought once pursued are easily recalled and fol- 
lowed ; any indulgence of emotions whether of cheer- 
fulness, sympathy, or moroseness tends to repeat 
itself, and may grow into habit. Every mental act be- 

tain material molecules and masses forming the substance of the 
Brain." 

Eead quotations in Hamilton's Metaphysics, Lect. IV, p. 52 ; 
Lect. IX, pp. 114 and 115. 

See Porter, Introduc, Chap. II; Bowne, Part I, Chap. I. 

' Read Carpenter, Chap. VIII; Porter, §§ 265, 266, 267. 



Introductory Topics. 31 

comes tendency, is easier to repeat, and often repeated may 
grow to be a part of character. 

6. Factors in Mental Growth (9). In its nature and 
functions the mind is essentially the same in all in- 
dividuals, i.e. every mind knows, feels, and wills. 
But the variations of mental power and traits are as 
numerous as the individuals themselves. These varia- 
tions are due to several causes. It is a matter of 
common observation that the natural capacity of the 
mind varies with bodily structure and nervous organ- 
ism.' Inherited tendencies are an important factor in 
determining the character and growth of the individ- 
ual. Perhaps every one has characteristics which he 
can trace to father or mother or grandparents. The 
nature of one's surroundings is also to be considered. 
Natural scenery impresses itself on the mind and fur- 
nishes much of the material for its activity. The in- 
fluence of varied and beautiful scenery upon mental 
growth is very important. The disposition and taste 
are influenced by home surroundings and the choice 
of companions. Bodily organism, hereditary power and 
tendency, natural surroundings, and social contact, are 
factors in mental growth. 

These facts are vital in the matter of education. 
Here is a being having a capacity and tendency with 
which he is endowed by nature, and having a will 

^ "Temperament denotes an original quality of the constitu- 
tion supposed to be due to the predominance of one or more of the 
vital systems — the respiratory, the circulatory, the nutritive, the 
nervous, and the muscular, modified also by the conditions and 
relative proportion of the solids and fluids of the system. There 
are four simple temperaments — the sanguine, the bilious, the 
lymphatic, and the nervous." 

Read Ladd, pp. 575-579. 



32 Psychology. 



power to choose or reject external influences. These 
endowments constitute the Internal Factor. On the 
other hand the mind grows upon the food furnished it 
in the way of surroundings, influences, and studies. 
These constitute the External Factor. Recognizing 
these facts we shall not fall into the error of supposing 
that the Individual can be wholh^ reconstructed upon 
an improved plan by external influences, or of think- 
ing that education can do but little to form character. 
A correct view of education must regard both the native 
endowment of the child and its potency in determining his 
growth, and the possibilities and limits of external influ- 
ences. 

APPLICATIONS. 

7. A SOTJND Mind in a Sound Body' (4). The physi- 
cal sj^stem has a certain amount of available energy. 
This energy is used in the processes of digestion, in 
bodily exercise, in exercise of the brain, and with 
children in growth of body and brain. Whenever 
there is an excessive demand in one direction, there 
is less energy for the other functions and they as a 
consequence must suffer. Mental exercise is neces- 
sary to the health and growth of tlie mind, but in 
childhood excessive drafts from the store of energy 
for brain activity will harm the body and react upon 
the mind. Every reasonable parent and educator will 
avoid making too great demands upon the brain of 
the growing child. 

Herbert Spencer quotes some one as saying that 
the first requisite to success in life is to be a good 
animal. We may regard the body as the physical 

^ Read Spencer, Education, Chap. IV. 



Introductory Topics. 33 

basis of mental energy ; hence the kind of body which 
the child is to use as the instrument of the mind is of 
prime importance. During the period of childhood 
complete repair of nervous and muscular waste and, 
in addition, vigorous growth of body are necessary to 
a strong constitution. 

Throughout life perfect nutrition, pure blood, and a 
sound nervous system are ideal physical conditions. 
All the wise laws of health which have been drawn 
from the accumulated experience of men, if observed, 
will tend to build and sustain a healthy brain for the 
use of a vigorous and happy mind. Whoever by neg- 
lect or excess decreases the vigor of the body will 
suffer loss in some of those things which make life de- 
sirable. Spencer says, " All breaches of the laws of 
health are physical sins." A sound mind in a sound 
body is the ideal of the Psychologist as well as of the 
Physiologist.^ 

8. Habit in Education' (5). From what we have 
learned of the influence of habit upon both Body 
and Mind we must infer that the formation of habits 
is no small part of education, and that it is highly 
necessary that good habits be formed in childhood. 
If it is difticult to change the handwriting when once 

^ ^'' Mens Sana in corpore sano is correct as a pedagogical 
maxim, but false in the judgment of individual cases; because it 
is possible, on the one hand, to have a healthy mind in an un- 
healthy body, and, on the other hand, an unhealthy mind in a 
healthy body. Nevertheless, to strive after the harmony of soul 
and body is the material condition of all normal activity." — • 

KOSENKRANZ. 

=^ Read Radestock, Chap. VIII; Tate, Part I, Chap. IV, p. 
127; Fitch, Chap. IV, p. 102; Rosenkranz, §§ 29-34. 



34 Psychology. 



formed, it is no less difficult to eradicate bad habits, 
or oYercome the saving influence of good ones. It is 
a common saying that character is a bundle of habits. 
It is not enough to let the child grow without re- 
straint as a spontaneous product of nature — he might 
yield to some undesirable hereditary tendency or de- 
velop the nature of an untrained savage. Training is 
as necessary as plaj^ for the child. 

The habits to be cultivated are those which should 
appear as traits of the grown person. Among bodily 
habits may be mentioned healthful positions in sitting 
and standing, graceful bearing, skill in drawing or 
playing musical instruments, quiet positions, and 
prompt movements. Skillful, prompt, and vigorous 
movements may be induced by gymnastics or calis- 
thenics or military drill. The Greeks regarded gym- 
nastics as an important factor in education ; Fichte is 
quoted as calling it a vital part of education. 

We may add that from the . earliest training of the 
child habits of regularity are indisj)ensable. At the 
proper age the child should be taught habits of neat- 
ness, order, observation, attention, obedience, self- 
restraint, regard for the rights of others, kindness, 
control of emotions, etc. The fact that this training 
will often prove unpleasant to the child does not de- 
tract from its educational value. To form the habit 
of enduring unpleasant things is an education in itself ; 
this fact was recognized in the Spartan discipline. 

Finalty, the schoolroom may be the best place for 
the cultivation of many of the habits mentioned. 
Healthful positions, punctuality, promptness, silence, 
restraint of inclination, though matters of tiresome 
daily routine, have a profound educational value. The 



Introductory Topics. 35 

growth of habit is slow, but teacher and pupil may be 
encouraged by the fact that every act performed to- 
day will be easier to-morrow. With children, the use 
of rules and precepts is of little value unless the 
things to be acquired are constantly practiced until 
they become habit. Habit makes irksome tasks easy 
and the performance of duty a pleasure. The meth- 
ods of everj^ schoolroom are forming habits in chil- 
dren and youth which will affect their entire life.^ 

9. Influences. Natural Growth (6). Among the 
factors in mental growth was mentioned the nature 
of one's surroundings. Childhood is the period of 
imitation ; hence the companionship, the sights, the 
beliefs that the child dail}^ encounters are to be re- 
garded as a potent factor in his education. Parent 
and teacher should guard carefully the approach of 
external influences, and strive to surround the child 
with a healthful atmosphere. There is a class of un- 
fortunate children in large cities who are reared in 
ignorance, vice and uselessness ; the responsibility 
for this rests upon the state and society. Provision 
should be made to give them at least the rudiments 
of a sound education and the knowledge of some use- 
ful occupation. Children of the class mentioned, 
when placed in school, require the exercise of patience 
and hopeful persistence ; only by these means may 
the teacher hope to counteract acquired habits and 
educate the better tendencies of their nature. 



' ' ' Child-life without the formation of habits is impossible. Not 
to form good habits is to make slovenliness, disorder, inattention, 
disobedience, sulDservieney to passion, cruelty, and the shirking of 
everything unpleasant habitual." 



36 Psycliology. 



Our view of the mind as a self- activity suggests that 
as a rule cramming and forcing processes should not 
be employed. The plant or the human body increases 
in size and strength when appropriate nutriment is 
supplied in sufficient, not excessive, quantity. Note 
that the jDrocess is a growth and development. When 
educating the mind, we discover a useful analogy in 
the growth of the plant. The teacher has done his 
best work when he has supplied appropriate material 
and furnished the most favorable conditions for the 
natural development of the pupil. Individual differ- 
ences and aptitudes in children must often be con- 
sidered. This fact points to a degree of flexibility in 
the employment of means and methods. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What is a Subjective Science ? An Objective Science? 

2. Mention any states and acts of your own mind. Define 
Introspection ; Physical Phenomena ; Mental Phenomena. 

3. Why is the study of the child's mind of special value to the 
Psychologist and the Educator ? 

4. How may literature aid in the study of the human mind ? 
Give some illustrations. 

5. Illustrate your idea of a nerve center and of reflex action by 
use of a diagram. 

6. In Fig. 8 trace the course of an "optic impression," result- 
ing in movement of the body toward the object seen. 

7. When the cerebrum is removed from the brain of a frog, 
what power of movement remains ? Are these movements intel- 
ligent ? 

8. May walking be controlled by pure reflex action ? 

9. Give some examples of bodily expression of mental states. 

10. Give some examples of the influence of body upon mind. 

11. Give some examples of mental habit. 

12. Does gymnastics train the mind ? 



Introductory Topics. 37 

13. Make some statements about the effect of natural scenery 
on mental growth. 

14. Give some illustrations of the influence of social surround- 
ings on character. 

15. Is the character of an individual due more to his nature 
than to his education ? 

16. Should the discipline of a school require anything that has 
not an educational value ? Mention some requirement which in 
your opinion has no value. 

17. Give reasons for the belief that education is a process of 
growth and development. What is the difference between 
growth and development ? 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND ATTENTION. 
MENTAL ACTIVITIES. 

10. Consciousness. Knowledge of tlieir own exist- 
ence, or action, cannot be ascribed to matter or the 
"blind" forces of Nature. Tlie mountain stands in 
grandeur, but knows not its existence ; the tree sways 
in the wind, but heeds not the movement ; the plant 
blossoms, but sees not its beauty. Mind is peculiar 
in that it not only acts but knows that it acts ; it not 
only knows, feels, and wills, but knows that it knows, 
feels, and wills. Consciousness is the term applied 
to this distinguishing characteristic of Mind. It is 
sometimes called poetically inner illumination or the 
eye of the mind. Without consciousness, the inner 
world would be as it were not ; and the outer world 
with its infinity of combination, form, and color, but a 
" darkling blank." Consciousness is the power of the 
Mind by which it knows its own acts and states. 

Tlie mind is directly conscious of what goes on within 
it,— impressions from the external world, thoughts, 
feelings, and volitions. The mind is conscious only 
of what is present. Last night I viewed a phosphores- 
cent sea and consciously admired the waves breaking 
in long lines of white fire. To-day I remember the 
experience, but am conscious only of the remembrance. 
I had imagined it before, but was conscious only of the 

3!^ 



Consciousness and Attention. 89 

imagination. Is tlie mind conscious of more tlian its 
acts ? I see tlie rose. The mind is conscious of the 
perception ; is it also conscious of the I, i.e., the mind, 
and of the object perceived, the rose? Many writers, 
one of whom is quoted, say Yes. " The object known, 
the subject knowing, and the knowledge are known 
simultaneously in one and the same act. . . . The 
mind is like the sun, which in revealing external ob- 
jects necessarily reveals itself." Many thinkers, on 
the contrary, believe that the mental act is the only 
object of consciousness, and that the knowledge of 
the ego and of the external object is merely an infer- 
ence or a necessary belief.^ 

Is there unconscious mental activity ? ^ The follow- 
ing are facts of common or well-authenticated' experi- 
ence : a name Avhich eludes us at a particular moment 
may come to us after the mind is turned to other sub- 
jects; a thought "frequently suggests a remote idea 
when we are unconscious of the intervening links ; a 
happy solution of a 2:)erplexing' question sometimes 
suggests itself if the whole matter be discharged from 
the consciousness ; all persons experience at times 
what may be called unex])ected flashes of knowledge ; 
a topic which is mixed and troublesome at night may 
be perfectly clear in the morning ; after an interval of 
rest from a subject, it often seems to have grown in 
the mind ; the mind in sleep is able to carry a purpose 
to awake at a certain hour ; we are subject to uncon- 

' See Porter, §§81, 82, 83. 

^ Unconscious Mental Action is also called " Latent Conscious- 
ness" and "Unconscious Cerebration." The term Unconscious 
Cerebration is employed by some Physiologists because they ex- 
plain unconscious activity as " reflex action of the brain." 



40 PsycJiology. 



cious prejudice. From these and kindred facts many 
writers infer tliat there is unconscious mental activity/ 
11. Attention Defined.' Put yourself in an atti- 
tude of attention ; the senses are alert, the mind is 
expectant. You select a particular object or thought 
to the exclusion of others and fix the mind upon it. 
If the object be of interest you prolong your effort ; 
after a time you turn the mind to some other object. 
Of the multitude of impressions from the external 
world, and of the varied thoughts and images of the 
mental world, the mind has the power to select and 
fix upon certain ones. Here the mind is conscious of 
effort at self -direction and the act is called voluntary. 

^ There are degrees of consciousness. Doubtless we are dimly 
conscious at the time of many mental acts which we afterwards 
fail to remember. A person reading a book may be earnestly at- 
tentive to the thought of the author, and at the same time have 
a faint consciousness of various bodily sensations, of sounds, frag- 
ments of memory, or bits of fancy. By attention any one of these 
may rise into the region of clear consciousness. This phase of 
the question should not be confounded with the one under 
discussion. 

Sir William Hamilton says touching this question : "I do not 
hesitate to maintain that what we are conscious of is constructed 
out of what we are not conscious of." 

Dr. McCosh says : " I believe it [any unconscious phenomenon] 
can all be explained by the ordinary laws of mind, without our 
calling in such an anomalous principle as unconscious mental 
action. I hold that we are conscious of the acts at the time, but 
that they were not retained, as there was nothing to fix them in 
memory." 

For discussion and examples see Hamilton, Lects. XVIII, 
XIX; Carpenter, Chap. XIII; Porter, § 87. 

' On the whole subject of Attention, read Sully, Chap. IV; Car- 
penter, Chap. Ill; Hamilton, Lect. XIV. 



Consciousness and Attention. 41 

Voluntary attention is the active self-direction of the mind 
toward any object external or internal. Since atten- 
tion makes consciousness more vivid it is sometimes 
called " Yoluntary Consciousness." 

Attention is often spontaneous. Objects of interest 
attract the mind. Children use but little will power 
in attention, but the mind turns to whatever is attrac- 
tive. We are often startled into an attitude of at- 
tention b}^ some unexpected occurrence. In these 
instances the consciously active Will is either wanting 
or is used in only a slight degree, hence such phases 
of attention are called Nan- Voluntary. 

12. Stimulus of Attention (16). In order to attend, 
some object either internal or external must be pre- 
sented to the mind. This object may be called the 
excitant or stimulus. A stimulus may be attractive- 
ness in some external object or phenomenon, as the 
beauty of a strange flower, or the flash of a storm- 
cloud ; it ma}" be something striking in an idea ; it 
may be a motive arising in the mind, as a desire to 
learn. Many objects both external and mental solicit 
the attention at the same time, but some in a higher 
degree than others. The principles of attention in re- 
sponse to a stimulus may be learned by observation. 
(1) Sweet music, beautiful scenes or pictures, activities 
in which we delight, objects of pleasing anticipation, — 
in short whatever is capable of producing agreeable 
emotions arouses attention. The same is true of 
whatever occasions painful emotion. (2) A bright 
object, a loud sound, a vivid mental image, a great 
enterprise, strongly solicit the attention. Hence the 
amount of attention answers to the degree of stimulus. 
(3) A child is pleased with the variety of his play- 



42 Psychology. 



tilings ; adults are constautlj searching for variety 
in surroundings and amusements ; the curiosity is 
aroused by what is new. We infer that variety and 
novelty are especially promotive of attention. (4) 
One boy is aroused by sports, another by reference to 
books ; the connoisseur in art is attracted by a fine 
painting, the merchant by a quotation of market 
values. So one's tendencies help to direct his atten- 
tion. 

I. Whatever occasions strong emotions of pleasure or 
pain claims the attention. 

II. The degree of attention varies with the intensity of 
the stimulus. 

III. Variety and novelty excite the attention. 

IV. Attention is more likely to be aroused if the object 
accords with one's habits, tastes, and tendencies. 

13. Conditions Unfavorable to Attention (17). 
When an attractive object is present to the mind it 
will not receive full attention unless the conditions 
are favorable. It is important to know the condi- 
tions unfavorable to attention. (1) The repetition of 
any sound, as the ticking of a clock, the noises of a 
city, finally fails to attract notice, and the repetitior 
of a thought after a while fails to interest. (2) Time 
is required to adjust the mind to a new train of 
thought, and confusion results from presenting sev- 
eral disconnected ideas at the same time. Hence a 
speaker when about to present a new subject gradu- 
ally prepares the mind. (3) Prolonged attention 
wearies. (4) When exciting or annoying events oc- 
cur, it is almost impossible to fix the attention uj^on 
a given subject ; physical pain distracts the attention. 
(5) The connection between mind and body is such 



Consciousness and Attention, 43 

that the mind must suffer with the body ; hence, when 
the body is wearied, the mind is not in condition for 
vigorous effort. 

Conditions unfavorable to attention may be enumerated 
as follows: (1) Too frequent repetition. (2) Too rapid or 
abrupt transition from one object to another. (3) Weari- 
ness from prolonged effort. (4) Disturbing external in- 
fluences and mental agitation. (5) 111 health or physical 
weariness. 

14. Growth and Power of Attention (16, 18). Ob- 
serve the activities of children. Now a musical sound, 
next some bright object, then a new toy draws their at- 
tention. The attention of a young child is a response 
to some outer stimulus. External objects affect the 
senses, especially of sight and touch, and by a kind of 
reflex action, the attention is directed hither and thither 
according to the degree of attractiveness in the object. 
Activity in children is constant, and the attention is 
ready to seize upon an}^ object presented ; their early 
life is thus a continual exercise of this power. 

Voluntary attention is employed when the child has 
acquired some experience and is able to use a degree 
of foresight. Now motives are first employed, and 
the attention will be given to a task to escape punish- 
ment, to merit approbation, or to gain knowledge. 
During this period voluntary attention is weak and 
easily turned from its object. Many things solicit at 
the same time, and diverting influences may nearly or 
quite offset the voluntary power. At this period of 
growth the influence and guidance of parents and 
teacher are needed to aid the efforts of the child. But 
every exercise of the power tends to form habit, re- 
quiring less effort of will. A high training of the 



44 Psychology. 



faculty will finally enable the mind to exclude all 
other influences and direct itself to a given object of 
tliouglit. It is thus possible for the interest in a sub- 
ject to become an absorbing one, and, if the motives 
employed be of a high character, as sense of duty or 
desire for excellence, the mind may be led to the 
highest and best attainments. 

People who cannot give close and continued atten- 
tion learn slowly and imperfectly. Many students 
do not use half their power for acquisition and 
growth, and never in later years reach any satis- 
factory attainment. Memory depends upon attention. 
One may listlessly peruse the pages of a book and 
remember nothing, because he fully attended to none 
of the thoughts. Attention is the die that stamps a 
deep impression on the memory. 

The attention may be trained to grasp a large 
field, as when a teacher observes a school, to pass 
rapidly from one subject to another, or to engage in 
concentrated and prolonged effort. This last is the 
highest exercise of the powder, and it constitutes a 
most important element of genius. Newton said that, 
if he had made any discoveries, it was owdng more to 
patient attention than to any other talent. Yery many 
instances might be cited of the wonderful develop- 
ment of this power, and the great results to which it 
led. Certain it is that all acquirement of knowledge, 
all success in professiona;l or business life, all growth 
and development of faculty depend upon the power 
of attention.* 

' Eead Hamilton, Lect. XIV. 

"The one serviceable, safe, certain, remunerative, attainable 
quality, in every study and in every pursuit, is the quality of 



Consciousness and Attention. 45 

15. Kinds of Mental Activity (19). If we turn the 
attention to our mental activities at any moment, we 
are likely to find them varied and complex. For the 
purpose of study it is necessary to arrange in groups 
mental acts that are similar, assigning a name to each 
group. In each day's experience our minds are em- 
ployed in perceiving, recalling and reasoning, in gain- 
ing knoivledge of the world, and what is going on in it ; 
the mind is also the subject of sensations, as from 
sight and hearing, and constantly exjDeriences feelings 
of pain or pleasure ; we are conscious, also, of im- 
pulses and decisions to do something which shall yield 
us profit or pleasure, or may fall within the line of 
duty ; in other words, we choose or luill. Knowing, 
Feeling, and Willing are the three kinds of mental activity. 
.Yary the experiment as we may, all our mental ex- 
periences will fall within one of these groups. 

Since we observe different kinds of mental activity, 
it is natural to think of powers or faculties of the 
mind as giving rise to these activities. Our knowl- 
edge, feeling, and choice are thus referred to three 
faculties : The Intellect^ The Sensibility, and The Will. 
But properly the mind is to be regarded as a unit, 
with power to act in different ways. For convenience 

ATTENTION. My own invention or imagination, such as it is, I 
can most trutlifully assure you, would never have served me as 
it has, but for the habit of commonplace, humble, patient, daily, 
toiling, drudging attention. Genius, vivacity, quickness of pene- 
tration, brilliancy in association of ideas, — such mental qualities 
will not be commanded; but attention, after a due term of sub- 
missive service, always will. Like certain plants which the poor- 
est peasant may grow in the poorest soil, it can be cultivated by 
any one, and it is certain, in its own good season, to bring forth 
flowers and fruit." — Dickens. 



46 PsycJiology. 



it may be said to liave as many faculties as it lias dis- 
tinct modes of activity. 

There is a certain relation between tlie three mental 
powers named and a certain logical order in their 
working. This order and relation may be determined 
by experiment. A friend invites my attention to an 
instructive and inspiring novel; he awakens my de- 
sire to know more of it ; I decide to purchase and 
read this new publication, and carry my decision into 
effect. Here the hnowledge of the new volume precedes 
the feeling of anticipated pleasure and of desire, and 
leads to the feeling ; the feeling precedes and leads to 
the exertion of the tvill. If ^ve apply a test to any of 
our deliberate acts, we shall discover the same order 
and relation. The natural order in mental activity both 
in point of time and dependence is Knowing, Feeling, 
"Willing. In this order the activities or faculties will 

be treated.' 

APPLICATIONS. 

16. Attention in Early Years. Appropriate 
Stimulus' (12, 14). Much of the work of the teacher of 
young children is to furnish the proper stimulus to at- 
tention. Most children are full of activity and simply 
need guidance. If we examine the four principles 
under " Stimulus of Attention," we shall find that 
those things which tend to claim the attention are in- 



^ There are some exceptions to this order. Such are " Sensa- 
tion," and perhaps the relation between emotion and judgment 
in view of the Beautiful and the Eight; but it is not necessary to 
discuss these exceptions here. 

2 Upon this and the two following topics read Bain, Education, 
Chap. Ill, Concentration, and Chap. VI ; Tate, Part II, Chap. 
Ill ; Kichter, Seventh Fragment, Chap. III. 



Consciousness and Attention. 47 

teresting. For the young child, then, tasks should, if 
possible, be made agreeable ; his first motive is pleas- 
ure. Bain, in his " Education as a Science," claims 
that a touch of pain is not unfavorable to attention, 
but adds, " If the work is within the compass of the 
pupils' faculties, and if a fair amount of assistance is 
rendered in the way of intelligible direction, although 
some sort of pain will frequently be necessary, it ought 
not to be so great as to damp the S|)irits or waste the 
plastic energy." The use of blame or pain of any kind 
is not in itself economical, for it wastes the nervous 
energy, and leaves less for the self-direction of the 
mind. It is to be employed only Vvdien other methods 
fail. All experience shows that extreme emotion, 
whether of pleasure or pain, is not favorable to atten- 
tion, but that a state of " moderate exhilaration and 
cheerfulness" is most favorable. 

It is hardly necessary to add that object-lessons are 
adapted to the child's mind, and that they must be 
sufficiently attractive to offset for the time other influ- 
ences ; that the attention of the child cannot profit- 
ably be held long to one subject, and that his mind 
delights in variety and novelty ; that in case one stim- 
ulus fails another may be employed with reference to 
his tastes and tendencies. 

17. Difficulties in the Way of Attention (13). 
Tate in his " Philosophy of Education" says : " The 
Boy of Feeble Intellect is inattentive because of his in- 
capacity ; The Sluggish, Lazy Boy is inattentive from 
a want of all mental activity ; TJie Volatile Boy is in- 
attentive from his love of novelty ; The Timid Boy is 
inattentive for want of sufficient confidence in his own 
powers ; TJie Boy of Genius is not inattentive in the 



48 Psychology. 



ordinary acceptation of the word ; to a common ob- 
server lie appears dull, but it is the dullness of inward 
thought." This summary suggests some of the diffi- 
culties in the path of the instructor, together with the 
necessity of knowing the different types of character, 
and adapting to some degree the means to the end. 
The dull boy needs more stimulus than any other of 
the classes mentioned, and it is wrong to blame him 
for what he cannot help. 

Some of the common causes of failure to secure at- 
tention are attempting too many things at a time, 
requiring tasks beyond the poAver or comprehension 
of the pupil, and requiring too prolonged effort of his 
power. Disturbing influences should be removed from 
the schoolroom. 

In every case when appropriate stimulus fails, the 
will of the teacher must act as a gentle and firm power 
urging to the performance of tasks. Enforced atten- 
tion is better than no attention, and the pupil should 
not be permitted to act to his own harm, because it 
w^ould not be agreeable to him to give his thoughts to 
the task in hand. Even compulsory performance of 
duty tends to form the habit, and the habit may grow 
into permanent character. 

18. Importance of Attention. Motives (14). All 
education depends upon attention. Without the 
power to secure it, the teacher will fail of success, and 
without it the pupil will fall short of reasonable attain- 
ments. Inattention should never be permitted in the 
class-room ; attention must be secured at any cost.^ 
But it cannot be too forcibly impressed that the true 



^ Bead Eosenkranz, § 83. 



Consciousness and Attention. 49 

cultivation of the power consists in its voluntary exer- 
cise. Tlie pupil must do for himself, must feel the 
pleasure of discovery, and grow into a love of the pur- 
suit of knowledge. 

After all that has been said about finding an appro- 
priate stimulus, and making tasks agreeable, the plain 
truth must finally be faced, that disagreeable tasks 
must be accomplished by pure efibrt of will. Bain 
says : " Then comes the stern conclusion that the un- 
interesting must be faced at last, that by no palliation 
or device are we able to make agreeable everj^thing 
that has to be mastered. The age of drudgery must 
commence, every motive that can avert it is in the 
end exhausted." ^ 

With older pupils motives must be employed as in- 
centives to vigorous application. The common mo- 
tives employed, stated in the order of their intrinsic 
value, are the fear of pain, the love of praise, the hope 
of future good, the desire for excellence, the motive 
of duty.* The building of sound character requires 
that the higher and better of these motives be used 
successfully, and become permanent incentives to 
action. 

' Rosenkranz emphasizes the thought that work must be sharply 
distinguished from play. " Work should never be treated as if 
it were play, nor play as if it were work." 

" Without play, the child would become more and more a ma- 
chine, and lose all freshness and spontaneity — all originality. 
Without work, he would develop into a monster of caprice and 
arbitrariness." 

"^ Dr. White selects these seven as the natural incentives most 
used in school : (1) A desire for standing or rank, including the 
desire to excel. (2) A desire for approbation— of equals and 



50 Psychology. 



19. Relation of Psychology to Education (15). 

*' On earth, there is nothing great but man ; 
In man there is nothing great but mind." 

Psychology is the science of mind ; it treats of mental 
activities, traces their growth from the germ to their 
highest exercise, and considers the laws of their devel- 
opment. The imjDortance of studying the manifold 
phenomena of the human consciousness is not likely 
to be overestimated. This study not only reveals the 
wonders of the mental world, but it may have much 
practical value, especially as a basis of educational 
principles. To acquire knowledge of the world with- 
out us, and of the powers and possibilities of the inner 
or mental world, to cultivate the emotions upon which 
the happiness or misery of man depends, to strengthen 
will power which is to guide the individual in his 
growth and in his relations to society, constitute the 
essential part of education. Psychology enables the 
teacher to direct understandingly the early growth of 
the mental powers ; it aids the individual in striving 
for that which is highest and best in himself, it is of 
value to all who would influence their fellow-men 
toward moral excellence and the best use of their 
faculties. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Give any reasons of your own to prove that there is uncon- 
scious mental activity. 

2. How may many bodily movements be explained as not due 
to mental activity either conscious or unconscious ? 



superiors. (3) A desire for activity and power. (4) A desire for 
knowledge. (5) The hope of future good. (6) A sense of honor, 
(7) A sense of duty, 



Consciousness and Attention. 51 

3. Consciousness of self is sometimes abnormal or morbid. 
Give examples of abnormal consciousness. 

4. Imagine a world void of consciousness. 

5. Analyze an act of Attention. 

6. Illustrate the difference between Voluntary and Non- Volun- 
tary Attention, 

7. Illustrate tlie difference between "inner" and "outer" at- 
tention. 

8. Can we attend to more than one thing at the same time ? 

9. What may constitute an object of attention ? 

10. Illustrate in your own way each of the principles of ' ' Stim- 
ulus of Attention." 

11. Show that variety and change are necessary for the adult 
as well as for the child. 

12. Make practical applications of each of the unfavorable con- 
ditions of attention. 

13. Illustrate the meaning of " attention of wide grasp"; "va- 
ried attention"; "prolonged attention." Imagine a person with 
no power of attention. 

14. Give an original illustration of the relation between the 
three faculties of the mind. 

15. Give some examples of great power of attention. 

16. Give the philosophy of the employment of pain as a motive 
to action. 

17. Make a list of common motives arranged in the order of their 
value, also in the order of their success as incentives to action. 

18. Mention any violation of the principles of attention in your 
own methods of study. 

19. State specifically any practical uses of psychology. 

20. Form a definition of Education. 



KNOWING-THE INTELLECT. 

Presentation— Perception. 

20. Kinds of Intellectual Activity (30). We Lave 
learned tliat tliere are three distinct modes of mental 
activity, — Knowing, Feeling, and Willing. There are 
various modes of Knowing wdiich have received appro- 
priate names. Through the senses we perceive the 
External World and gain a knowledge of the objects 
which present themselves. These same objects, known 
in childhood, in after years may be re-presented in 3Iem- 
ory. We may think about the events of a day, or the 
experience of former years, and draw conclusions 
which were not reached through perception or mem- 
ory. When we perceive objects we gain a hioivledge 
of them ; when we remember we re-present a knoicledge 
of them ; w^hen we think about them so as to form 
judgments or reach conclusions we add to the knoioledge 
acquired by perception. These statements show the 
aptness of the terms employed, and suggest in part the 
following classification : 



Processes of 
Knowing 



" Presentation (Perception). 
Representation 



Thinking 



Memory, 
Phantasy, 
[ Imagination. 

I Conception, 
< Judgment, 
( Reasoning. 

53 



Knowing — Presentation. 53 

The mind is first awakened by communication with 
the External World through the senses. Perce]Dtion 
of external objects is the first Intellectual Activity, 
and it furnishes the material for the exercise of Mem- 
ory and Reason ; hence the study of this facult}^ 
naturally precedes that of the other powers of the 
Intellect. 

21. Sensation. There are two classes of sensa- 
tions, — General and Special. 

General Sensations include all those which do not 
belong to the "five senses," — those which consti- 
tute our bodily comfort or discomfort ; they may be 
classed as follows : 

Muscular Sensations of injury, fatigue, and repose ; 

Nervous Sensations arising from the state of the 
nervous system, as when we feel the exhilaration of 
perfect health or are weakened b}^ care or sufiering ; 

Vital Sensations, depending on the condition of the 
vital organs, as those of hunger and thirst and their 
opposites, the pain af indigestion, the feeling of suffo- 
cation when breathing impui-e air.'' 

Special Sensations are of five kinds, namely, those 
of Touch (including those of the " 3Iuscular Sense''), 
of Sight, of Hearing, of Taste, and of Smell. 

The senses of Sight and Hearing are furnished with 
extremely delicate organs ; the nerves of Taste and 
Smell are distributed to the upper surface of the 
tongue and to the membrane lining the nose. All the 
nerves of sensation center in the brain and thus com- 



* This is practically true, tliongli we may grant that the first 
mental experience is consciousness of bodily sensations. 
"^ Bain, Bk. I, Chap. II. 



54 Psychology. 



municate witli the miud, reporting conditions of the 
body and impressions from the external workl.' 

The conditions of sensation are that the organs of 
sensation be sound, and that some excitant give rise 
to molecular vibration of the nerves ; this vibration is 
communicated to the brain, there producing the mental 
product of sensation. The excitant of the optic nerve 
is the vibration of the ether, a wave motion emanating 
from some luminous body and striking the delicate or- 
ganism of the eye. The sense of hearing is aroused by 
vibrations of the air or some other elastic medium. 
The sensations of temperature are due to vibrations 
of ether, or to the heat vibrations of some conducting 
substance, which strike the nerves distributed to the 
parts of the body. It is supposed that the sensations 
of touch, taste, and smell are the result of molecular 
movement in the nerve substance."^ 

^ Experiments have been made to ascertain the discriminating 
power of the senses. It has been found that the mind, through 
sensation, can recognize a variation in temperature of about 1° F. 
If the points of a pair of compasses be apphed to the surface of 
the body, the points must be at a certain distance apart to give a 
sense of "double contact." The smallest distance varies on dif- 
ferent parts of the body from the thirty-sixth of an inch to three 
inches. The tip of the tongue is most sensitive in recognizing 
double contact. Laying the hand and forearm on a table, the 
mind may discriminate between a pressure of 20 oz. and 19.2 oz. laid 
on the tips of the fingers, and between 20 oz. and 18.7 laid on the 
forearm. Fechner's experiments showed, among other things, 
that in lifting a small weight (300 grams) a difference of one 
twenty-fifth could be recognized. 

For extended results refer to Ladd's Physiological Psychology, 
pp. 367-369. 

"^ A modified view is thus expressed by Prof. Ladd : " Oa gen- 



Knowing — Presentation. ^5 

22. Perception Explained and Defined.' We 

locate visual objects at various distances from the 
body, but persons born blind, who have afterward 
received sight, at first see the external world as a con- 
fused patchwork of color touching the eye or indefi- 
nitely located ; they do not distinguish one object 
from another by sight, and do not know the shape of 
anything. Originally the sensation of color is not 
connected with the idea of. distance and place, for the 
sensation is in the mind. It is through experience that 
we come to use the sensation as a sign of external exis- 
tence, and acquire the power to correctly locate the cause 
of the sensation. If we could revive the experience of 
infancy and make it a vividly conscious experience, 
we should learn that the External World — familiar 
objects, human beings, the landscape, the sky, strains 
of beautiful music, the sound of the distant bell, our 
own bodies — at first impressed our minds only as 
sensations, and that the sensations, by a slow process 
of experience, Avere interpreted as marks of external 
qualities. 

The mind of the child is at first without knowledge 
or consciousness ; its first experience is probably of 
sensations of bodily comfort, or discomfort, together 
with a feeble response to light and sound the sources 
of which are not located." It is difficult for us to 

era! principles of physical science there can be little doubt that 
the excitation and conduction of nerve-commotion is dependent 
upon a chemical change in the nervous tissue itself . " See further, 
Ladd, p. 22^. 

'Read Hamilton, Lect. XXIV; Sully, pp. 147-149; Taine, Part 
II, Bk. II, Chap. II. 

^ Taine notes the following observations in case of a little girl: 



56 Psychology, 



tliink of pure sensation, because we liave learned by 
experience to associate every sensation with our ac- 
quired knowledge. We experience something like pure 
sensation when startled by a sudden and unknown 
sound, when surprised by a flash of light from an un- 
known source, or when perplexed by the odor of a 
strange flower of whose presence we were ignorant ; 
yet in these cases we cannot rid ourselves of the idea 
that the causes of the sensations are external. 

It is a common error to mistake sensation for per- 

"It is certain to my mind that during the first two months, the 
surrounding world was composed for her of sounds and patches of 
color, which she did not know how to situate. At two months and 
a half, she evidently recognized the direction of certain sounds: for 
instance, hearing her grandmother's voice, she turned her head 
toward her. At three months she knew, in some cases, how to di- 
rect her looks by turning her head and eyes toward the object she 
wished to see. ... At about three months old she commenced 
to feel about with her hands, to move her arms to reach objects, 
consequently, to associate with the colored patches tactile and 
muscular impressions of distance and form." 

The following beautiful stanzas from Tennyson are often quoted 
in this connection: 

" The baby, new to earth and sky, 

What time, his tender palm is pressed 

Against the circle of the breast, 
Has never thought that this is I. 

*' But as he grows, he gathers much, 

And learns the use of I and me, * 

And finds I am not what I see. 
And other than the things I touch; 

'' So rounds he to a separate mind, 

From whence clear memory may begin, 
As thro' the frame that binds him in. 
His isolation grows defined." 



Knowing {the Intellect). 



57 



ception. Mere feeling is not knowledge. Sensations 
are neither tlie qualities of matter nor the knowledge 
of those qualities. They are simply the means by 
which objects are revealed. Sensation may be re- 
garded as the point of contact between Mind and the 
External World. We perceive when through sensation 
we are made to know the existence of external objects. 

Perception is the act of gaining knowledge of the external 
world through the senses. 

The statements of this section and of the preceding 
one may be made clearer by a diagram : 



Sensation of Touch 

" " Color 

" " Sound 

" " Taste 

" Smell 



'Hand 

Quality of hardness, resistance, etc. 

Eye 

Quality of color: red, blue, etc. ■ 

Ear 
Sonorous quality. 

Tongue 

Sapid qualitj' : sweet, etc. 

■ Nose 
Odorous quality: pungent, etc. 



The hand touches some external object, a wave moves 
along the nerves of touch and produces a sensation 
in the mind; this sensation is at once referred by 
the mind to the object producing the sensation and 
regarded as a quality of the object. Light flashes to 
the eye, trembles along the optic nerve, produces a sen- 
sation, and reveals the hue of the sunset sky. A trill 
strikes the delicate auditory mechanism and we recog- 
nize the song of a bird. Volatile elements from the 
garden disturb the olfactory nerve, and we enjoy the 
sweet odor of flowers. Through the five senses the 
world of infinite variety, form, and color stands re- 
vealed to us in all its beauty and wonder. 



58 Psychology. - 



23. Growth of Perception : Tactile and Muscular 
Map. The first work of the child in perception is 
to map out, in the mind, the different parts of the body, 
and to locate therein the causes of his sensations ; he 
then makes a map of the world external to the body 
so far as objects may be known by touch. These maps 
are formed by interpreting muscular and tactile sen- 
sations, which are messages, as it were, from the ma- 
terial world. ^ 

Move the arm and note the muscular sensations, 
then touch some object and note the tactile sensation. 
By contrast between the muscular and the tactile sen- 
sations the surface of the body is gradually outlined 
and limited. Now note the contrast when one hand 
touches the other, and when the hand touches some 
external object ; the one sensation is called double, the 
other single. By contrast between the double and the 
single sensation, the distinction between Body and 
Not-Body is learned. Move the arm through a short 
distance, then through a longer, now in one direction, 
then in another, and note the varying sensations. It 
is through muscular sensation that the idea of dis- 
tance is gradually acquired. Observe the difference 
between merely touching a body and grasping it. 
When grasping an object we are conscious of the bent 
position of the fingers and the continuity of touch.'^ 
Finally, touch a variety of objects and note the vary- 
ing sensations of hardness, smoothness, etc. 

' Some psychologists claim that a knowledge of the body as ex- 
ternal to the mind, extended and having parts, is revealed by 
every action of each of the senses. See Porter, §§ 114 and 119. 

^ Kead Porter, §§ 142-149 and 153-156. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 59 

Through tactile and muscular sensations — 

(1) We know the externality of the body to the mind; 

(2) We learn the distinction between Body and Not- 
Body; 

(3) We acquire ideas of distance, form, size, resistance j 

(4) We discover the qualities of hardness, smoothness, 
etc. ' 

24. Growth of Perception: Visual Map (31). AYe 
are next to learn liow we construct in the mind a 
visual map of the external world, and locate upon this 
map in signs of vision the information gained through 
the tactile and the muscular sense. '^ 

The sense of sight probably gives originally only 
sensations of color. ^ How do we learn to locate col- 
ored objects in space? Note the movements of the 
child, how the eye constantly follows bright objects, 
how the hand attempts to reach them, how the eye 
follows the hand. When a colored object is thus 
touched, we may suppose that the knowledge of the 
hand is shared by the eye, and that the idea of posi- 
tion through the sense of vision arises. (1) If we hold 
the eyes fixed upon a given point, we note that the 



* Bain says, p. 50: " There is nothing essential to the highest 
intellectual processes of science and thought that may not be at- 
tained in the absence of sight. The integrity of the moving ap- 
paratus of the frame renders it possible to acquire the funda- 
mental notions of space, magnitude, figure, force, and movement, 
and through these to comprehend the great leading facts of crea- 
tion, as taught in mathematical, mechanical, or physical science.'" 

"^ Taine, Part II, Book II, Chap. II, § IV. 

' Read Porter, §§ 133-135. Carpenter says: " Sight originally 
informs only of what can be presented in a picture — that is, light 
and shade and color." 



60 Psychology. 



impression is more distinct in the direct line of vision, 
and that toward the outer circle of objects in the field 
of vision it grows less distinct. (2) The size and the 
distance of objects determine the size of the image on 
the retina. (3) We are conscious of muscular effort 
in turning the eyes toward an object, in keeping the 
eyes upon an object as it gradually approaches or 
recedes, and in tracing the dimensions of an object. 
Try the experiments suggested ; you will then be 
prepared for the following inference : Through the 
varying impressions due (1) To the position of the image 
on the retina, (2) To the size of the image, and (3) To the 
muscular efforts in directing the eyes, we locate objects, de- 
termine their size, and their condition of movement or rest. 
Bodies are thus located to the right or the left, 
above or below, far or near. Movement across the 
field of vision is known by the effort in turning the 
eyes. Objects distinctly seen are known to be near, 
indistinctness is associated with distance. The near- 
ness of small objects is known by the muscular effort 
in directing both eyes to the same point. The dis- 
tance of known objects, and the size of unknown ob- 
jects at a known distance, are determined by the visual 
angle. ^ Kemember that color alone is learned by 
sight. All this other knowledge, this visual map of 
the external world, is first taught by touch and the 
muscular sense, by the various hand and arm move- 
ments, and by the muscular efforts made in moving 
different distances to and from objects. "" 

^ Refer to some work on Physics. Let each experiment for him- 
self, note the varying sensations, and verify the above facts. 

'^Read Porter, f§ 140-142, 156-161; Bain, Book I, Chaf). II, 
" Sense of Sight"; Ladd, p. 420. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 61 

By sight we learn also to clistinguisli one object from 
another, and to identify objects known to the touch.' 
Every surface appears colored."" Many familiar ob- 
jects possess a characteristic color which we associate 
with our tactual knowledge of them. Every kind of 
surface, as rough or smooth, has its own color or lus- 
ter. A solid body presents a variety of shading as the 
portion of surface is nearer or more remote, this shad- 
ing varying with the shape of the solid. We may learn 
to recognize objects known to the touch by association of 
color, luster, shading, etc.^ 

25. Growth of Perception: Hearing, Taste, and 
Smell. Sounds are originally sensations within the 
mind. After long experience the child associates 
sounds with the cause, if the cause be some object 
familiar to touch and sight. We judge of the distance 
of a familiar sound by its degree of distinctness. The 
direction of a sound may be imperfectly determined 
by the different effect upon the two organs of hearing. 

An article of food may be recognized by taste alone, 
if we place it in the mouth without seeing it or recog- 
nizing it by touch. This is often done by children in 
their play, when some sweetmeat is offered with the 



^ The " confused surface of color" which the aggregate of ob- 
jects in the field of vision originally presents to the eye gradually 
becomes separated by experience into distinct objects of vision. 

"^ Light and shade are here included under color. 

^ A youth for whom Dr. Cheselden removed a cataract could 
easily recognize the household dog and cat by feeling, but at first 
could not, by sight, tell which w^as the cat and which the dog. 
One day he was seen to take the cat and stroke her carefully wiiile 
looking at her attentively. He then put her down, saying, " So, 
puss, I shall know you another time." 



62 Psycliology. 



request, *' Sliut your ej^es and open your moutli." 
We gain no original knoAvledge of bodies by taste ; tlie 
image of tlie object wliicli a familiar taste calls up lias 
been acquired through the other senses. 

Odors are associated, for instance, with the sight of 
familiar flowers, because we have observed the pres- 
ence of the flowers Avlien inhaling the fragrance.' If 
smell were our only sense, the entire work of Percep- 
tion would be the apprehension and discrimination of 
sensations of smell. 

26. Percept, Image. We have considered sepa- 
rately the knowledge received through each sense. 
Let us review the w^ork of each sense in revealing the 
qualities of some familiar object, as an apple. The 
sense of touch reveals its size, smoothness, etc. ; the 
sense of sight reveals its color; the taste, odor, and 
dull sonorous quality are known through the senses 
of taste, smell, and hearing. We group all these sepa- 
rate qualities at the same time in one place. We need 
not employ all the senses to recognize this familiar 
fruit, sight alone tells us what it is ; but the qualities 
originally revealed by the other senses are revived by 
the memory and associated with the well-known color 
and shape. The impression made upon the mind through 
one or more senses by a present object, together with re- 
vived impressions of the other senses, is called a Percept." 

^ " The direction and nature of the object which causes the sen- 
sations are judged by variations of intensity on turning the head, 
or on approaching or receding from the object." — Prof. Ladd. 

"^ Compare Porter, §§ 161, 162. Porter applies the term Per- 
cept to the knowledge of an ol^ject gained through a single sense. 
The various percepts are fused into a single notion of the object 
as a whole, 



Knoiolng (the Intellect). 63 

A Percept revived by an act of memory is called an Image.' 
I perceive tliis apple lying on tlie table — the mental 
product, tlie impression made upon the mind, as I 
view it is a Percept ; I remember the appearance of a 
fine large apple as it hung on a branch in the garden 
— this is an Image. 

27. Elements of Perception. I experience an audi- 
tory sensation, a stroke of full volume vanishing in 
a hollow murmur ; I intuitively believe that the sen- 
sation is due to some external cause ; from my previous 
acquaintance Avitli like sensations I infer the cause to 
be the vibration of the distant church-bell ; I construct 
a full mental picture of the bell as known through the 
different senses. The elements of perception are — (1) 
Sensation; (2) Intuition; (3) Inference; (4) Grouping or 
Construction. In our experience these elements i^lay 
their part so rapidly that we are often conscious of 
only the product, the finished percept ; but a careful 
analysis of any act of perception will reA^eal the exist- 
ence of each of the four elements. 

28. Necessary Ideas. During the growth of Per- 
ception certain ideas arise which are not perceived 
through the senses ; they spring from the mind's own 
energy. These ideas do not exist clearly in the mind 
in early years, but they are gradually defined by ex- 
perience. Whenever I perceive I am not only con- 
scious of the mental product, the Percept, but I intu- 
itively know mj^self as existing and perceiving, and 
the existence of an object perceived. Hence arises 
the idea of Being.'' Whenever I experience sensation, 

^ Compare Sully, p. 224. Idea is sometimes used in the sense 
of Image. 

^ The development of the idea of self is well illustrated by this 
quotation from Jean Paul Richter, used by Dr. Porter ; " Never 



64 Psychology. 



I iutnitivelj ascribe tlie sensation to an external Cause. 
Objects cannot exist without existing somewhere, that 
is in space. The notion of Space is another necessary 
idea. We cannot jDerceive objects in succession with- 
out the idea of Time. From the observation of various 
objects springs the idea of Number. When observing 
various objects, some like and some unlike, the idea 
of Resemblance and of Difference arises. You see this 
book. Try to think that what you see has no being, 
does not cause your sensation, is not in space or time, 
is not distinguishable from any other thing. You will 
see Avhy the ideas of Being, Space, etc., are called 
necessary. Remember that at first these ideas are of 
concrete realities. I know that this plant exists, has 
being ; that this agreeable sound is caused by the 
piano ; that the clock is in space ; that I see my friend 
at this time ; that these rose-bushes are numerous ; 
that the roses on this bush are alike and different 
from those on the neighboring bush. Abstract ideas 
of cause, time, etc., are of later growth. 

f Being, 

Cause, 

Space, 



Some 
Important 
Necessary Ideas i Time, 
are those of Number, 



[ Resemblance and Difference. 



shall I forget the phenomenon in myself, never till now recited, 
when I stood by the birth of my own self-consciousness, the 
place and time of which are distinct in my memory. On a cer- 
tain forenoon I stood, a very young child, within the house door, 
and was looking out toward the wood-pile, as, in an instant, the 
inner revelation, 'lam I,' like lightning from heaven, flashed 
and stood brightly before me ; in that moment I had seen myself 
as I, for the first time and forever." 

^ See Appendix, and compare list of Intuitions. Compare 



Knowing {the Intellect). 65 

Three tests of necessary ideas are usually given : 
Self-evidence, Necessity, Universality. That space exists 
is self-evident, needs no demonstration ; attempt to 
remove space, you leave space behind. It is necessary ; 
objects cannot exist without it. Its existence is known 
by all intelligent human beings. 

Necessary ideas are ideas of realities not perceived 
through the senses ; these ideas are developed by experi- 
ence ; they are at first concrete but may become abstract ; 
their tests are Self-evidence, Necessity, Universality. 

29. Difference and Agreement. Education of the 
Senses (31). Growth of perception may be viewed as 
growth of discriminative power, that is, consciousness 
of differences and agreements. We distinguish one ob- 
ject from another, one sensation from another, and w^e 
distinguish between the varying degrees of a sensation. 
We also discover agreements. Objects possessing 
like qualities are recognized in their proper relation, 
and a second view of an object recalls the previous 
perception.^ Without discrimination there could be 
no knowledge. Through discrimination the mist 



White, Elements of Pedagogy, p. 44. It is very difficult to make 
a satisfactory list of Necessary Ideas. Apply the tests at the end 
of the section to the following : Mind, Matter, Infinity, Truth, 
Right, Beauty. 

'Bain makes these statements: "The primary attributes of 
Intellect are (1) Consciousness of Difference, (2) Consciousness 
of Agreement, and (3) Retentiveness. Every properly intellectual 
function involves one or more of these attributes." 

"All knowledge finally resolves itself into Differences and 
Agreements. To define anything, as a circle, is to state its agree- 
ments with some things (genus) and its differences from other 
things (differentia)." 



Psychology. 



gradually vanislies and objects aj^pear distinctly in 
the clear liglit. 

The power of the organs of sense varies in different 
persons. Some are susceptible to a wider range of 
auditory impressions than others. The ojDtic nerve 
of one may be affected by a faint excitant, while that 
of another responds only to liglit of greater intensity. 
Some are color-blind.' The discriminative power 
of the mind through the senses is increased by 
practice. The tea-taster becomes very acute and 
discriminating in the sense of taste and of smell. 
The musician is very exact Avith reference to pitch 
or quality of tone. Touch may become sensitive to 
the finest distinctions in the texture of fabrics. A 
blind person gains more knowledge through the sense 
of touch than one blest with vision. The artist de- 
tects shades of color imperceptible to the untrained 
sense. By education of the senses the world of beauty 
is revealed more fully to the mind. The quickness, 
accuracy and grasp of discriminative power deter- 
mine an imj)ortant part of the intellectual character.'^ 

APPLICATIONS. 

30. Activity of Childhood in Relation to Percep- 
tion. Kindergarten Methods (20). In the develop- 
ment of mind, Perception is first. It is through 
sensation and perce]3tion that the mind is first 

^ Variations in the sense organs are to be distinguished from 
mental variations. For a summary of the results of experiments 
to ascertain the time-relations of mental phenomena, see Ladd, 
pp. 468, 469. 

' Carpenter relates of the celebrated conjurer, Kobert Houdin, 



Knowing {the Intellect). 67 



awakened to consciousness. Tlie necessity for con- 
stant exercise of tlie faculty at this period is met by 
tlie spontaneous activity of cliildbood. Repression 
of such activity is contrary to what Nature intends. 
Every movement, every exercise of voice, every obser- 
vation of objects through touch or sight is giving the 
chihl control of the body through sensation, and culti- 
vating the power and accuracy of the senses. Play 
with toys, inquir}^ about objects and their names 
add to the child's knoAvledge of the world through 
Perception and through the rudimentary exercise of 
other faculties.' 

Thus the period of childhood, before the training 
of the schools begins, is a most important one. Edu- 
cation has already begun and the mind is accumu- 

the manner in which he prepared himself and son for the per- 
formance of certain marvelous tricks. Amongst other things, 
"the father and son often passed rapidly before a toy-shop, or 
any other displaying a variety of wares ; and each cast an atten- 
tive glance upon it. A few steps farther on, each drew paper 
and pencil from his pocket, and tried wiiich could enumerate the 
greater number of objects seen in passing. The son surpassed 
the father in quickness of apprehension being often able to write 
dowm forty objects, whilst his father could scarcely reach thirty ; 
yet on their return to verify his statement he w'as rarely found to 
have made a mistake." 

' "Children should be taught from their earliest years to use 
their senses intelligently and habitually. They should be en- 
couraged to observe carefully the objects around them, and 
taught to describe and report them correctly . . . Pictures 
and models are used very extensively in modern education, and 
serve a good parpose, as they call in the senses to minister to the 
intellect. But the things themselves are vastly more instructive 
than any representations can be. So children should be taught 
to use their senses, especially their ears and their eyes, in ob- 



68 Psychology, 



lating many ideas of the outer world. The per- 
ceptive knowledge thus gained is the ground- work 
for the formal instruction of the schools. The de- 
gree of education and the amount of knowledge the 
child already has, when entering the Primary grades, 
is not always recognized in the methods there em- 
ployed. 

The methods of the true Kindergarten are founded 
upon a most philosophical basis. The bodily ac- 
tivity, the observation, the practice of modeling, tlie 
study of form and figure, are in the main a contin- 
uation of the processes of Nature, and they beget 
habits of accuracy in perception and representation 
which constitute the best foundation for higher knowl- 
edge. 

31. Cultivation of Disckiminative Power.' Distinct 
Images (24, 29). The act of discovering agreements 
and diiferences is naturally one of pleasure to the 
child, and his mind is easily led to such discovery. 
In respect to color, figure and size the discriminative 
power may be cultivated by contrasting different colors 
and shades of the same color, by tracing the figure of 
objects in pictures and comparing one picture with 
another, by superimposing geometrical figures cut 
out in card-board, and by placing similar objects 
of different size near each other. Geometrical forms 

serving the objects around them, and the events that occur, and 
storing them up for future reflection. Plants and animals and 
stars, men and women and children, fall under our eyes at all 
times, and their nature, shapes, and actings should be diligently 
scanned for practical use and for scientific attainment." — Dr. 
McCosH, Psychology, p. 61. 
' See Tate, Part II, Chap. II. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 69 

may be known by handling them, by counting the 
sides, edges and angles ; the conception of number is 
best acquired by handling concrete units, by grouping 
and comparing them. Lengths and distances may be 
discriminated by drawing and comparing lines, by 
measuring with a rule, etc' 

If to the observation of objects is added the draw- 
ing and naming of them, and tlie expression of simple 
judgments about them, the best kind of work in the 
cultivation of perception has been accomplished. 
Nothing else so fixes the attention and cultivates the 
use of eye and hand as the drawing of objects. An 
important use of drawing in schools is to promote the 
growth of accuracy in Perception. 

Distinct images are the necessary basis of knowl- 
edge. They are the material for the use of the higher 
faculties, and upon the number and character of the 
images acquired by perception, much of the character 
of future growth will depend. 

^ The following simple lesson in Psychology given by Tate may be 
taught even to a child : "T. What shape has this object (a ball) ? 
P. It is round. T. How do you know that it is round ? P. I see 
that it is round. T. Is there no other way by Which you can 
know that it is round ? You seem to hesitate, — now take it in 
your hand and run your fingers over its surface. P. I feel that 
it is round. T. But your feeling tells you of another property 
which that object has — wdiat is that property ? P. It feels 
smooth. T. But there is another w\ay by which you know it is 
smooth. P. It looks smooth, — it is glossy or 'bright. T. True — 
your experience teaches you that bodies which are bright or 
glossy are almost always smooth. Now close your eyes and take 
this body in your hands, — can you feel what color it has ? P. I 
cannot feel color. T. Now open your eyes and tell me what 
color it has. P. I see that it is red. " 



70 Psychology. 



32. Principles Applied to the Various Branches of 
Study. Any system of scliool instruction which would 
supplement what Nature does for the child through 
the senses, should employ the methods of Nature. 
The Kindergarten helps Nature by increasing the ex- 
tent and accuracy of natural observation. Objects 
themselves are employed instead of the signs of ob- 
jects, namely, mere words. *' The thing itself before 
the sign" is the grand maxim for early education. 
This same principle, in spirit, should be employed in 
all grades of work. 

Accordingly the first steps in Beading are taught by 
giving accurate ideas of objects through Perception ; 
then the object or act is associated with the printed 
sign, so that the word may truly stand as the sign of 
an idea. The notion of abstract number is developed 
by handling, counting and arranging objects; by 
dividing an object into equal parts, so that the written 
sign, the figure, may stand for definite knowledge. 
Geography should not be taught wholly by maps and 
descriptions, but the objects of nature around us, the 
hills, streams, and valleys, should be used as elements 
with which to construct the world. Description must 
often be substituted for observation. Descriptions of 
persons and of interesting events in History are an 
excellent preparation for the later generalizations 
in that study. Language should first be taught by 
example and then by rule. In the elementary study 
of science, objects and specimens should be handled 
and exjDeriments should be performed. From speci- 
mens and experiments classes may be made and prin- 
ciples may be inferred. This method makes the mind 
observant and eager. The student of Psychology can 



i 



Knowing {the Intellect). 71 

understand and verify its principles by careful study 
of the objects of the mind's consciousness/ 

EXERCISES. 

I. Show in what sense Perceiving, Kemembering and Keason- 
ing are acts of Knowledge. 

- 2. Show the aptness of the terms Presentation and Representa- 
tion as applied to Intellectual acts. 

3. Show in your own way the difference between Sensation and 
Perception. 

4. How is consciousness developed ? 

5. How does the Mind acquire the idea of externality ? 

6. State in detail how the size of an object is known by touch ; 
how the difference between a rough and a smooth surface is 
known. 

7. How can we tell by the eye that a body is hard, smooth, 
distant, of a certain size ? Describe each process in detail. 

8. Trace in detail the development of Perception in connection 
with Hearing. 

9. What original knowledge is given by Taste ? 

10. One born without sight and hearing would lack what 
knowledge of the world ? 

II. Do we know Matter, or do we know only its qualities ? 

12. Give an original example of the grouping of the separate 
elements in perception of a material object. 

13. Make clear the difference between a Percept and an Image ; 
the difference between an object of Sense-Perception, an object of 
Consciousness and a Necessary Idea. 

14. How does the notion of Power grow out of Perception; 
the notion of Time ? 

15. Show in a general way that the growth of visual perception 
is a growth in discrimination. 



^ These applications would likewise fall under the head of 
Memory, Imagination, and Reasoning, but the spirit of these 
statements is suggested by the principles of Perception. 



72 



Psychology. 



16. Give some examples of a high cultivation of sense-percep- 
tion. 

17. The following is a diagram showing the perceptive process 
through the sense of sight. Continue the diagram for Hearing ; 
for the other senses. 



Sense 


Stimulus or 
Excitant 


Sensation 


Direct 
Perception 


Acquired 
Perception 


Sight 


Light waves 


Color 


Quality of color 


Size, 
Form, 
Figure, 
Distance, etc. 



18. Is great activity in children a fault ? 

19. Make some estimate of the knowledge that the average 
child first brings with him to the school. 

20. How would you teach a child to read ? Give reasons for 
the method. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 73 



Representation. 

introduction. 

33. Nature of Representation. A few years since 
I stood with some friends upon one of tlie higher ele- 
vations of the foothills in the Eocky Mountains. As 
we looked to the east, we saw the gray billowy plains, 
stretching away, seemingly as vast as the ocean, 
toAvard the mists and clouds of the horizon. On the 
west, wild, torn, and rugged, barren and snow-capped, 
extended the Rocky llange, while toward the south, 
over beyond a vast amphitheater, rose in grand suc- 
cession, terrace, range, and dome, covered with forests 
of dark pine, lighted here and there with a group of 
aspens, growing golden in the autumn sun. All, I 
think, who viewed the scene, were thrilled with emo- 
tions of grandeur and beauty, and touched with the 
kindred feelings of courage and aspiration. Those 
same grand features of Nature, the thoughts and 
emotions awakened, the clear sky and bright sun, the 
few fleecy clouds moving slowly above the summits, 
the feeling of freshness and vigor from the pure, cool 
air, many incidents of the day, the faces of the friends, 
I can see now after the lapse of years. This is a re- 
presentation to the " mind's eye" of what was then 
present to the senses, a revival of the impressions of 



74 Psychology. 



perception in the form of mental /mag'es.^ These are 
not perfect in all their detail, they are not so vivid as 
at the time of observation, but they are more or less 
accurate pictures of what I then saw. Moreover here 
is a reproduction of the thoughts and feelings, all the 
experiences of the day, in the form of Eepresentative 
Ideas. 

It may be noted : 

1. Knowledge of a presert object through the senses is 
Presentative ; presentative knowledge and any new mental 
experience, revived, are called Representative.^ 

2. Representative objects are mental, not external. I 
saw the mountains as external objects, present to 
the senses ; what I now see is a mental picture. 

3. Representative objects are less vivid than the original. 
Look at some object, then close the eyes and picture 
it ; the mental image greatly differs in distinctness. 

4. Representative objects are not complete in detail. 

^ " My eyes make pictures, when they are shut: — 
I see a Fountain, large and fair, 
A Willow and a ruined Hut." 

Coleridge, in A Day Bream. 
^ Some physiologists claim that the revival of images is due to 
an effect produced upon the structure of the brain by acts of per- 
ception, creating a tendency to a repetition of the same nervous 
action, in the same nerve centers. Hamilton, however, claims 
that this supposition is not necessary. See Hamilton, Lect, XXX, 
p. 419. Kead Ladd, p. 550. McCosh expresses his view thus: 
"Brain action is required in order to the reproduction of our 
sense-perceptions. Now it is highly probable that the same part 
of the brain acting in the perception is necessary in order to its 
reproduction. When there is a lesion of a certain part of the 
brain, it may not be possible to form an image of the object. In 
all cases the vividness of the image may depend on the health 
and the susceptibility of the brain matter." 



Knowing {the Intellect). 75 

What I now recall is but an imperfect outline of the 
grand scenery then viewed in all its rich variety. 

5. Representation is not confined to any one sense or to the 
senses. The sound of music, our sensations, the various 
kinds and shades of emotion, the thoughts and fancies 
of the mind may be recalled. Any experience of the 
soul may live again in memory. 

" Music, when soft voices die. 
Vibrates in the memory — 
Odors, when sweet violets sicken, 
Live within the sense they quicken." 

Dr. McCosh says : " It should be specially noticed 
that not only are we able to represent sensible scenes ; 
we are further able to picture the thoughts and feel- 
ings which passed through our minds as we mingled 
in them." 

We may now attempt a definition : Representation 
is the act of reproducing a percept or any former conscious 
experience in the form of an Image or Representative Idea.' 

We may add other important cousiderations of the 
subject. Representation is involved in Perception. The 
sight of an orange may bring into mind all that has 
been learned of it through touch, taste and smell ; the 
odor of a rose may bring with it the api3earance of the 
flpwer ; a rumbling sound will revive the image of a 
passing carriage. Perception as an original source of 
knowledge would be almost valueless, if it were not 
aided by the memory. Representation is the condition 
of higher intellectual processes. It preserves the mate- 

^ "Literally signifying Image, the term Idea may stand for all 
those operations in which there is a reproduction of past experi- 
ences." 



76 Psychology. 



rial acquired by perception and presents it to the use 
of the Conceptive and Reasoning faculties. 

34. Varieties of Representation. The experiences 
of the past come back to us in various degrees of 
completeness, and they are sometimes so grouped as 
almost to defy recognition. (1) My mind may dwell 
upon a mountain or lake scene viewed in some former 
pleasure trip ; upon the stirring events of the previous 
week, or the labors of yesterday ; and each important 
object and incident is referred to its proper time and 
place and known as a former object of cognition. 
(2) In moments of leisure, fragments of scenes and 
objects or bits of fancy may float through the mind, 
and we may not know whence they come or whether 
they were a part of our former experience. (3) The 
artist sits at his easel and constructs an ideal scene, 
using as elements past perceptions, but grouping 
them into a new whole with different forms and 
relations. 

There are three forms of Representation which may 
be defined as follows : 

The power to retain, represent and recognize former 
objects of perception and former experience is known as 
Memory. 

The power to represent objects without recognition is 
known as Phantasy. 

The power to reproduce, to modify and to recombine the 
material furnished by perception is called Imagination. 

35. Differences and Agreements in Representation 
(53, l). Bain says, " The primary attributes of Intel- 
lect are (1) consciousness of Difference, (2) conscious- 
ness of Agreement, and (3) Eetentiveness. Every 
properly intellectual function involves one or more of 



Knowing {the Intellect). 77 

these attributes. ... A delicate discrimination is 
thus the condition of all retentiveness, as it marks 
out clearly the distinctive features of what is to be 
retained. ... It must be taken for granted until 
the contrary is shown, that the delicate feeling of 
Agreement follows Discrimination, and that Reten- 
tiveness will follow both. Once for all, therefore, we 
may assume that delicacy of Discrimination is to be 
accepted as the criterion of all the intellectual prop- 
erties. Hence, when a sense has an unusual degree 
of discriminative power, there will be an unusual re- 
tentiveness for its sensations." Bain here refers to 
Agreement and Difference in Perception as the condi- 
tion of Memory ; but the act of Memory involves a 
marking off of what is remembered from some things, 
and it must involve an association of similarity with 
other things. To be conscious of an image, is to be 
conscious of it as a distinct thing. Confusion of mem- 
ory is failure to distinguish the facts as originally ac- 
quired. In the use of the Imagination, the finer the 
discriminative power, the more highly finished the 
product will be. 

MEMORY. 

36. Primary Laws of Association ' (53, 2-4). The 
ceaseless activity of our minds in our waking mo- 
ments, much of which is employed in recalling the 
past, often seems to be governed by chance ; but, if 
we carefully review any train of memory, we may be 
able to trace some connection of one idea with an- 
other, and see that every idea was naturally suggested 

^ Read Porter, §§ 245-25G ; McCosh, Psychology, pp. 112-135. 



78 PsycJiology. 



by the one preceding it. Tliis connection is some- 
times difficult to trace, but it always exists. I may 
be tliinking at one moment of tlie artistic merit of tlie 
play of Hamlet, at the next of a Chinaman's cue. 
These surely do not seem kindred subjects. I review 
the journey from the one idea to the other thus : — 
Hamlet, Shakespeare, England, England's military 
renown, France, the French war in Tonquin, China, 
the Chinese in America, the aj)pearance of a Chinaman 
whom I passed on the street, — and so my thought has 
traveled around the world to reach but a trivial idea. 

By examining a large number of instances of se- 
quence in memory, philosophers have discovered the 
relations which bind ideas together and have expressed 
the action of the mind in accordance with these rela- 
tions as Laws of Association. 

1. The x4.merican Congress may remind one of the 
British Parliament. Some feature of a new landscape, 
similar to a portion of one long familiar to us, may 
awaken recollection. Objects which resemble each other 
tend to recall each the other. ^ In the first example, our 
knowledge of Congress and of Parliament has always 
been connected with the idea of " Legislative Body" ; 
when a mention of the one recalls the other, the mind 
through the link of Identity is simply acting as it has 
done before. In the example of the landscape, the 
similar feature acts upon the mind as a substitute for 
the familiar feature, and the mind not only dwells 
upon that feature but reviews the whole landscape in 
memory as it was accustomed to do in perception. 

* This involves the law of Analogy : Analogous objects tend to 
recall each other. Examples : Sunshine suggests prosperity ; 
mist, confusion ; a lion, courage ; an oak, strength; etc. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 79 

Observe tliat, wlien recalling tlirougli resemblance, 
the mind repeats in idea the process of acquisition. 

2. Riclies may suggest poverty ; liglit, darkness ; a 
liill, a mountain ; virtue, vice ; etc. Contrasted ideas 
tend to recall each other. It is a laAv of tlie mind to 
define or acquire certain ideas by contrast ; therefore 
when an idea recalls its opposite, tlie mind acts as it 
did before. 

3. In connection we think of Paris and the French 
Revolution, Csesar and Rome, Egypt and the Pyra- 
mids, autumn and harvest, childhood and our early 
home. Objects and ideas associated in the same time or 
place tend to recall each other. Ca3sar and Rome were 
originally studied in the same connection. Certain 
objects and events were habitually observed in con- 
nection with the home of childhood ; in old age, 
whenever the image of that home arises, the mind re- 
views many of the associated scenes. Again, the mind 
acts in a manner similar to that in ivhich it acted before. 

4. A train of cars in motion suggests steam-power ; 
a knife, ' a wound ; a fire, warmth. Ideas related as 
cause and effect tend to recall each other. Cause and 
effect are frequently viewed together ; hence, wdien 
the effect brings uj3 the cause or the cause the effect, 
the mind reproduces the original act of observation. 

The relations by which one idea tends to recall another 
are (1) Resemblance, (2) Contrast, (3) Contiguity in Time 
and Place, (4) Cause and Effect. 

In studying each of these relations it has been 
noted that there is no virtue in the relations them- 
selves, but that the mind acquires knowledge in these 
relations, and tends to recall it in the same relations. 
The natural and the incidental associations in the ac- 



80 PsycJiology. 



qiiisition of knowledge become the principles of asso- 
ciation in memory. Hence Dr. Porter has expressed 
the four Laws of Association in the form of one 
"Comprehensive Principle": "The mind tends to act 
again more readily in a manner or form similar to any in 
which it has acted before ." ^ 

Bain says of the laws of Association: "With few 
exceptions, the facts of Retentiveness may be compre- 
hended under the principle oalled the law of Conti- 
guity, or Contiguous adhesion." He thus states the 
principle : " Actions, sensations and states of feeling, occur- 
ring together or in close succession, tend to grow together 
or cohere in such a way that when any of them is afterward 
presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up 
in idea." 

37.' Secondary Laws of Association (53, 5-io). 
While the mind ever acts in accordance with the 

"Association of ideas must depend partly on the brain, on the 
gray cellular matter at the periphery, or on the currents through 
the brain, or, as I rather think, on both, the nature and disposi- 
tion of the cells determining the direction of the currents. . . . 
I believe that every thought and every feeling produces an effect 
upon the cellular portion of the brain and leaves an impress upon 
it. Now in order to the reproduction of the thought and feeling 
in memory, it seems to be necessary to have a cooperation of the 
organ of the brain thus affected, and to have the aid of the cur- 
rents. When the association has not this concurrence it is hin- 
dered and restrained." — McCosH, Psychology^ p. 145. 
" And slight withal may be the things which bring 
Back on the heart XhQ weight which it would fling 
Aside forever ; it may be a sound — 
A tone of music — summer's eve — or spring — 
A flower — the wind— the ocean— which shall wound : 
Striking the electric chain wherewith we are darkly bound." 

Byron, Childe Harold. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 81 

Primary Laws of Association, tliere are certain con- 
ditions wliich favor the recall of some ideas more 
tlian others. These conditions, stated, are called the 
Secondary Laws of Association. 

1. The student becomes interested in the subject 
of electricity and studies it earnestly ; he readily re- 
calls the facts and principles of that branch of Physics. 
The incidents of a day of joyous pleasure, the events 
attending a period of crushing sorrow, will ever be re- 
membered. Ideas acquired by earnest attention and 
events attended by deep emotion are easily recalled. 

2. You find a chapter in history unattractive, but 
you go over it again and again and succeed in impress- 
ing the leading facts upon the mind. Familiar objects, 
and thoughts often reviewed, are readily recalled. 

3. The events of yesterday, the lesson of to-day, are 
fresh in mind, and they come up repeatedly ; years 
hence they may be entirely forgotten. Recent experi- 
ence is likely to be recalled. 

4. A person in good health will think of cheerful 
subjects, one in ill health of gloom^y. A physician 
will think of subjects connected with his profession. 
One boy constantly turns to thoughts of play, another 
dwells upon his studies. The likelihood of the revival 
of some ideas is affected by health and by natural or 
acquired tendencies. 

The conditions which favor the recall of ideas are as 
follows : (1) Exclusive attention and clear discrimination 
during acquisition. (2) Repetition. (3) Recentness of 
experience. (4) Accordance with individual feelings, 
habits, and tendencies. ' 

^ Compare Porter, § 256. 

How interest and occupation may give direction to the thoughts 



82 



Psychology. 



Tlie idea present in the mind at an}^ moment may be 
regarded as a central object with links of association 
connecting it with many other objects. These links 
may be ^dewed as the means by which the mind may 
recover associated objects. A diagram may make 
clearer the Primary Laws and the relation of the 
Secondary Laws to them. 

Relations of Contrast. 
g h i etc. 



Relations of 
Resemblance. 



etc. 



a b 



etc. 



Relations of Contiguity 
in Time and Place. 



Central 
Idea. 



etc. 



a b 



etc. 



m n o etc. 
Relations of Cause and Effect. 



(1) An idea in mind at a given moment may be re- 
lated to one or more ideas by Resemblance ; to other 

the mind acting under the Primary Laws of Similarity and 
Contiguity, is shown by this extract from Shakespeare's Merchant 
of Venice. That the thoughts suggested are mainly of the im- 
agination rather than of the memory, does not detract from the 
value of the illustration. 

" My wind cooling my broth, 
Would blow me to an ague, when I thought 
What harm a wind too great might do at sea. 
I should not see the sandy hour-glass run, 
But I should think of shallows and of flats, 



Knowing {tlie Intellect). 83 



ideas by contrast, etc. (2) An idea in mind may be 
linked to one and the same idea by each of the four 
kinds of relation. (3) ATlietlier a will be recalled 
rather than h, or d recalled rather than g, is determined 
by the Secondary Laws. 

38. The Principle of Contiguity applied to Aggre- 
gates, Movements, Auditory and Visual Trains, Paral- 
lel Trains. 1. Aggregates. The mind fuses the im- 
pressions of an object received through the several 
senses, and the product is an aggregate known as an 
idea of the object. In the same way we form an image 
of an extended landscape, or picture the map of a 
country as a whole, and in the relation of its parts. 
In each of these instances any one of the related parts 
may recall the whole. 

2. Movements. Physical movements directed to 
some end originally require conscious effort. Such are 
learning to walk, learning to use the voice in speaking 
and in singing, and practice in manual dexterity. The 
muscular, the tactual, the auditory or the visual im- 
pressions made upon the mind during the acquisition 
of skillful movements form a series, and they are em- 
ployed in recalling and directing movements. The 

And see my wealthy andrew docked in sand, 
Vailing her high top lower than her ribs, 
To kiss her burial. Should I go to church, 
And see the holy edifice of stone, 
And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks, 
Which, touching but my gentle vessel's side. 
Would scatter all the spices on the stream. 
Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks; 
And in a w^ord, — but even now worth this. 
And now worth nothing." 



84 Psychology, 



separate impressions forming the series finally become 
so united that movements may be performed almost 
or quite automatically, after the mind has decided upon 
a particular action. This is called perfect habit/ 

3. Auditory and Visual Trains. Yocal sounds 
formed into words and sentences, tones fashioned into 
strains of music, produce trains of auditory impressions. 
These trains enable us to retain and repeat the sounds 
and tones in order. Many muscular movements de- 
pend in part upon aggregates or trains of visual im- 
ages. This fact may be shown by an attempt to write 
in the dark. When reading from a book, the images 
of the printed words impress themselves upon the 
mind in order, and they aid the memory. 

4. Parallel Trains. Memory often depends upon 
parallel trains. Suppose one is memorizing thought 
from the printed page. (1) The mind forms the habit 
of thinking the thoughts in the order suggested by the 
words. (2) The emotions awakened by the thoughts 
may form an imperfect series. (3) The mind forms a 
series of the visual signs, namely, the printed words. 
(4) If the passage be read aloud, an auditory series is 
established. (5) We might mention also the muscular 
habit of repeating the words in a given order. Thus 
in committing to memory there may be formed four or 
fL\Q parallel series of mental impressions, each series 
more or less complete. Any one of the trains may aid 
in recalling the thought. 

39. Language' (53, ll). Through Perception and 

* See Bain, Book II, Chap. I, Movements, p. 86. 

= Read L"ocke, Bk. Ill, Chaps. I and II. 

"It may also lead us a little toward the original of all our 



Knowing (the Intellect). ^5 

Memory we acquire and retain a knowledge of things 
and their qualities. As we shall learn under "Think- 
ing," the mind may form a notion of a group of similar 
things called a concept ; it may note a relation between 
things, i. e., form a judgment concerning them ; and 
it may discover a relation between things by a mediate 
process called Eeasoning. To our knowledge — of 
things and their qualities, of groups of things, and of 
relations betAveen things — the mind naturally seeks to 
give expression by means of signs. The natural signs 
are facial expression, bodily attitudes and gestures 
and inarticulate cries. In earlier stages of civilization 
Picture-Writing is emplojxd to express knowledge. 
Spoken words and their written signs are the ordi- 
nary means of communicating knowledge. iV word is 
the sign of some idea. Words ^^ossess their full value 
only when they stand for distinct and definite knowl- 
edge. 

From childhood, by constant rej^etition, word signs 

notions and knowledge, if we remark how great a dependence our 
words have on common sensible ideas; and how those, which are 
made nse of to stand for actions and notions quite removed from 
sense, have their rise from thence, and from obvious sensil)le 
ideas are transferred to more abstruse significations, and made 
to stand for ideas that come not under the cognizance of our 
senses; v.g. to imagine, apprehend, comprehend, adhere, con- 
ceive, instil, disgust, disturbance, tranquillity, etc., are all words 
taken from the operations of sensible things, and applied to cer- 
tain modes of thinking. Spirit, in its primary signification, is 
breath; angel, a messenger; and I doubt not, if we should trace 
them to their sources, we should find, in all languages, the names 
which stand for things that fall not under our senses, to have 
had their first rise from sensible ideas." — Locke, Human Under- 
standing. 



PsycJiology. 



are inseparably connected with the things which they 
represent, so that the sign, when employed, brings for- 
ward the notion of the thing. By constant use of a 
given word for the same purpose, the object represented 
becomes more clearly defined in Perception and 
Memory. 

The more important use of language is in connection 
with Thinking, because we deal with groups, relations, 
and acts more than with individual objects. "We may 
perceive objects and recall their images without lan- 
guage, but it is difiicult, if not impossible, to tliinh 
without language. The use of language in Conception, 
Judgment and Reasoning will be considered later. 

40. Memory Necessary to the Idea of Time. The 
idea of Time involves Memory. Without representa- 
tion, at least of the immediate past, the idea of suc- 
cession could not arise. To gain an idea of past time 
some image or experience recalled must be contrasted 
with present perception or feeling ; thus the idea of 
not-noiv and noiv arises. For instance, a child is enjoy- 
ing a toy, if he be deprived of the toy he is conscious 
of present grief ; at the same time the picture of his 
previous enjoyment persists in his memory. The idea 
of future time arises in a similar way. The child be- 
comes habituated to a series of customary events, and, 
at any point in the series, pictures that which usually 
follows. For instance, the dinner usually follows the 
call of the bell ; if the dinner be delayed the child viv- 
idly represents the appeasing of his hunger, and now 
locates that event in the future. By the law of mem- 
ory, we recall important events in the order of their 
occurrence, as A, B, C, more easily than in an inverted 
or confused order, as B, C, A. After a while casual 



Knowing {the Intellect), 87 

events are referred, in point of time, to the regular re- 
currence of known events, as day and night, the lapse 
of the weeks and seasons. We say " It happened yes- 
terday," "The Independence of the Colonies was de- 
clared in 1776." 

41. Varieties of Memory (53, 12-15). The humor- 
ist has a good memory for stories, the philosopher for 
theories, the accountant for figures, the historian for 
events. The hind of memory is partly due to occupation 
and natural tendency. One may have a remarkable mem- 
ory for visual, another ior auditory impi'essions. An 
English portrait painter was accustomed to require but 
one sitting ; afterward he pictured the subject sitting 
in the chair before him and painted from memory. A 
friend, when studying as an artist in Rome, copied 
the original painting of Beatrice Cenci, which was 
carefully guarded in the Cenci Palace. He with 
other visitors occasionally gained admittance to look 
at the celebrated picture ; he would then go to his 
studio and paint from memory. The copy was re- 
garded as a model of accuracy. Mozart wrote down 
from memory the " Miserere" after he had heard it but 
once. Beethoven was entirely deaf when he com- 
posed many of his great works. Remarkable visual or 
auditory memory is due both to native endoiument and to 
habit. A person all of whose faculties are quick in their 
operation has a Beady Memory. One whose impres- 
sions are naturally vivid or who is thorough in his 
methods of acquisition has a Betentive Memory. 

The two important classes of memory are known as 
the Circumstantial and the Philosophical. A most excel- 
lent illustration of the former is the frequently quoted 
speech of Dame Quickly, from " King Henry lY," Sec- 



8S Psychology. 



ond Part : — " Thou didst swear to me upon a parcel- 
gilt goblet, sitting in my dolphin chamber, at the round 
table, by a sea-coal fire, upon Wednesday in Whit- 
sun week, when the Prince broke thy head for liking 
his father to a singing man of Windsor ; thou didst 
swear to me then, as I was washing thy wound, to 
marry me, and make me my lady, thy wife." Unedu- 
cated people are likely to remember the details of tri- 
fling events because their lives are largely made up of 
those events. 

A person who is accustomed to arrange facts under 
principles, to place them in natural groups or in the 
relation of cause and effect, will employ the philo- 
sophical memory. He will readil}^ recall the princi- 
ples of a science, and the necessary steps of reasoning 
in mathematics. He will remember a rule of arith- 
metic or a formula of mechanics, because he can con- 
struct it for himself. Theories, trains of argument, 
reasons are easily remembered because his mind, 
finding an interest in them, habitually dwells upon 
them. 

42. Permanent Acquisition at Different Periods 
OF Life. Some ph^^siologists believe that "nerve- 
tracks" in the brain constitute the mechanism of asso- 
ciation in memory. Whether this view be accepted 
or not, it is clearly true that, in early years, when the 
brain is growing, permanent impressions are easily 
made. During middle life, after the structure of the 
brain has become more or less fixed, the mind is still 
capable of retentive acquisition, although not to the 
same extent as in youth. In old age when the nutri- 
tive and vital powers are feeble new impressions are 
much less likely to become fixed, although the im- 



Knowing {tJie Intellect). 89 

pressions of youth may be retained in all their vivid- 
ness/ 

When we think of the effect of early training upon 
character, we must believe that childhood is the 
period for permanent moral impressions. All physi- 
cal habits, such as attitudes of body, skill in draw- 
ing, may be acquired more successfully in early 
years, than in later life. Says Bain: — "As regards 
the mental peculiarities, the earliest periods are most 
susceptible to Moral impressions ; also to Physical 
habits, such as bodilj^ carriage, the mechanical part 
of language (pronunciation), or the use of the hand 
as in drawing. After these come the Verbal memory, 
and the exercise of the senses in Observation, with 
the corresponding pictorial recollections. The Gen- 
eralizing, Abstracting and Scientific faculties are 
much later ; Arithmetic, Grammar, Geometry, Physi- 
cal Science, etc., begin to be possible from the tenth 
year onwards. Up to fourteen or sixteen, the con- 
crete side of education must prevail with the vast ma- 
jority, although by that time, a good many abstract 
elements should be mastered, more especially mathe- 
matics and grammar. The basis of every aptitude, 
not of a high scientific kind, should be laid before 
sixteen." ^ 

43. Power and Cultivation of Memory (53, I6-17). 
Biography is filled with examples of wonderful mem- 
ory. It is said of Pascal that he forgot nothing of 
what he had done, read, or thought. The memory of 

• Kead Carpenter, Bk. II, Chap. X, § 351. 
"^ On the subject of Acquisition read Bain, Bk. II, Chap. I, pp. 
114-127. 



90 Psychology. 



the ancients was probably excellent because knowl- 
edge was not then as now stored m books easy of 
access, and they were compelled to exercise the mem- 
ory/ In our experiences there is every degree of at- 
tention, and hence of mental impression. Yery much 
of that which we perceive and think quickly vanishes, 
and a large portion probably beyond the power of 
recall. Yet there are remarkable instances of revival 
of impressions that must have been extremely faint 
when made.'' 

The important factors in the cultivation of memor}?- 
are interest and attention. All the laws of attention are 
here applicable. In childhood the attention is secured 
by presenting what is naturally interesting. Later, the 
memory is to be cultivated by the performance of 
assigned tasks. That which of itself possesses little 
interest may be studied with intense interest, because 
it is a means to some end, such as the gaining of 
power, knowledge, honor, or happiness. 

All the intellectual faculties may be strengthened by 
exercise, and the memory not less than the others. 
The power of memory has its limits ; and probably 
its excessive cultivation detracts from the energy of 
the other powers. Some writers believe that a poor 



^ "Leibnitz and Euler were not less celebrated for their intelli- 
gence than for their memory, and both could repeat the whole of 
the JEneid. . . . Ben Jonson tells us that he could repeat all 
he had ever written and whole books that he had read.- Themis- 
tocles could call by their names the twenty thousand citizens of 
Athens; Cyrus is reported to have known the name of every 
soldier in his army." For further examples of remarkable mem- 
ory, see Hamilton, Lect. XXXI. 

' For illustrations, see Carpenter, Chap. X, Memory. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 91 

memory, as a whole, cannot be cultivated to an extra- 
ordinary degree ; but tliat any variety of memory may 
be strengthened by persistent exercise. 

Although the memory in advanced years may not 
be good, there is a recompense in the fact that exten- 
sive knowledge aids fresh acquisition. New ideas 
overlap our previous knowledge, and may be recalled 
by links of association already formed. A large store 
of historical information aids the retention of any new 
fact, by associating it with similar facts of other 
periods. In retaining new ideas the bond of simi- 
larity is a very important one. 

PHANTASY. 

44. ILLUSTKATIONS. SUMMARY. The power of Phan- 
tasy reproduces images severed from relations of time, 
place, and previous perception.' In phantasy the 
mind acts " capriciously without regard to truth, law, 
and reality." " Day Dreams'' illustrate this form of 
Eepresentation. The body is at ease, will .and judg- 
ment are almost passive, and the images come and go 
at pleasure, and are viewed as the figures of a pano- 
rama, without ejffort to define, locate, or explain them. 
Eeverie shows the constant activity of the mind. It 
is a rest to the weary brain and a source of pleasure. 
Often the phantasms of reverie may be wrought into 
useful ideals. 

In Sleep, when the senses and most of the faculties 
are inoperative, when the mind is thus shut off from 
communication with the external world and from any 

^Porter, §810. 



92 Psychology. 



correct knowledge of bodily conditions, images alone 
may be objects of consciousness and may gambol 
uncontrolled by the judgment.' In dreamland one 
may fall over a precipice and alight without injury, 
may see a carriage driven up a chimney, or by the 
mere energy of muscular tension may rise and float 
over trees and houses at will. In SomnamhulismySii- 
tended by dreams, however distinct and definite the 
mental images, there is no proper recognition of them 
at the time, and they are not afterward remembered 
as realities.^ 

In Delirium and some forms of Insanity the brain is 
diseased, the faculties are disordered, and no accurate 
judgment is brought to the interpretation of mental 
images, or the morbid physical sensations which in 
some cases may produce them. The mind is partly 
severed from its intelligent relations with the outer 
world, and dwells in the world of incongruous images, 
where distorted creations from present sensations 
mingle with confused and unrecognized images of the 
memory.^ 

The Phantasy is that form of Representation which ap- 
pears in Reverie, Dreaming, Somnambulism, Hypnotism,* 
Delirium, Insanity, and in certain Hallucinations. 

* For an extended discussion of the phenomena of sleep, see 
Porter, §§ 314-327. 

^ For an account of somnambulistic states see Porter, §§ 327-342, 
^ Kead Carpenter, Chap. XVIII, on Insanity. 

* See Carpenter, Hypnotism, Chap. XV, § 493 to end of chapter. 
"The true explanation of Hypnotism appears to be as follows : 

{a) The fixing of attention produces an arrest of the ordinary ac- 
tivities of the brain; (6) the ordinary activities of the brain being 
arrested, a condition of unstable equilibrium is produced ; (c) 



Knowing {the Intellect). 93 

46. Hallucinations. Goethe, when he closed his 
eyes and depressed his head, coukl cause fantastic 
flowers to spring up and unfokl in the field of vision. 
Recall the illustration of the artist who, in the ab- 
sence of the subject, could seat the image in a chair 
before him and thus paint from memory. In these 
instances, when the attention was turned from the 
images, they disappeared, and ordinary perception and 
memory held sway. 

There are cases, however, in which the images per- 
sist, are spontaneously projected into space before 
the person, and appear to be real objects. Macbeth 

sees 

■ " A dagger of the mind, a false creation, 

Proceeding from the heat- oppressed brain." 

Here is an unusual excitement of the optic centers 
of the brain which is referred to an external cause. 
In all such cases it is supposed that the brain centers 
which are instrumental in forming images are excited 
and unusually active, indeed so active that the images 
of memory are more vivid than the impressions of 
perception. In this condition a person may look at 
the wall of a room, and not see the wall but seem to 
see an image situated between him and the wall. 

this unstable equilibrium renders easy an involuntary ideo-motor 
action when any particular idea is formed by ,suggestion in the 
consciousness of the subject; {d) an idea is suggestedio the mind 
of the subject by the hypnotizer; and (e) this idea reacts in- 
voluntarily upon the brain, producing a corresponding ideo- 
motor action. All is involuntary, but all takes place through 
consciousness. The state of hypnotism seems to be one in 
which will is surrendered and ideo-motor action is left auto- 
matic."— P. J. Hill. 



94 



PsycJiology. 



Note that all whicli is necessary to this result is that 
the image be stronger than the perception. When 
the undue excitement of the ideational centers is re- 
duced, the impressions of perception again become 
the more vivid, and the hallucination disajDpears.' 

46. Laws of Association in Phantasy. Are phan- 
tasms governed bv the laws of association ? In some 
forms of Phantasy, it is difficult to investigate this 
question, but these laws undoubtedly operate in 
reverie and dreaniing. If we arouse ourselves from 
reverie, and review the succession of images, fre- 
quently we ma}^ trace their connection. Fancy is 
linked unto fancy. The habit produced by \ivid 
trains of thought, the experiences of early 3'ears, or 
the impressions of the previous day may give direction 
to our dreams. Physical sensations may also suggest 
the dream as they suggest thoughts in waking mo- 
ments. Even in summer, during sleep a chilly sensa- 
tion may be attended by a view of an open window 



^ " Many circumstances, organic or moral, the action of hascliisli, 
of datura, of opium, the coming on of apoplexy, different in- 
flammatory diseases, different cerebral alterations, in short, a 
number of causes, more or less remote or near, are capable of thus 
strengthening an image or series of images, so as to annul the 
special sensation which should repress it, and thus bring on hal- 
lucination." 

" Solitude, silence, obscurity, the want of attention, all cir- 
cumstances in short which suppress or diminish the corrective 
sensation, facilitate or provoke the hallucination; and recipro- 
cally, company, light, conversation, aroused attention, all cir- 
cumstances giving rise to or augmenting the corrective sensation, 
destroy or weaken the hallucination." 

For a complete discussion of this subject, see Taine, Part I, 
Bk. II, Chap. I. 



Know I Jig {tlie Intellect). 95 

and a heavy fall of snoAv ; indigestion, as in an in- 
stance related, may suggest a picture of the Evil One, 
seated cross-legged upon the stomach of his victim, 
and holding Bunker Hill Monument in his lap. 

IMAGINATION. 

47. Illustrations, and Definition. Characteristics. 
I read a description of Athens or an account of the 
battle of Marathon, and I picture the ancient city with 
its temples, or the battle-field and the events of that 
glorious contest to ward off the Persian invader. An 
inventor pictures a balloon im23elled by electricity 
and guided by the aeronaut in a direct course, and he 
endeavors to adjust the materials and wield the forces 
with which he is familiar to that end. The artist sees 
elements of beauty in many landscapes, and with 
these elements he constructs an ideal landscape. We 
observe admirable qualities in dilFerent persons, and 
with these we imagine the ideal man and perhaps 
endeavor to conform our lives to an ideal standard. 
These are typical acts of the Imagination. Imagina- 
tion is the power to modify and recombine our images and 
ideas. Phantasy simply recalls. Memory recognizes, 
but Imagination constructs. The imagination of the 
reader who pictures the scenes of description may be 
called Cognitive ; the imagination of the inventor may 
be called Inventive or Philosophical ; the imagination of 
the artist may be called jEsthetic or Poetic ; the imag- 
ination which forms ideals of excellence in conduct 
may be called Ethical. 

Examine each of the above examples and note the 
truth of the following statements. 



96 Psycliology. 



1. The materials used by the imagination are derived 
from experience. AYe use familiar people, toAvns, 
mountains, Tallejs, events, qualities and experiences 
to construct ideals. There is no image of descrip- 
tion, no conceived geometrical figure, no vision of 
the future which is not constructed out of the crude 
materials of memory, which has not in some way 
been a part of our former experience. Our percepts 
and any of our recalled experiences may be idealized. 
This material may be changed by enlarging, dimin- 
ishing, adding to or taking away. 

2. We think abstract and general notions, but we imag- 
ine the particular and concrete. We imagine a particu- 
lar machine, or state of society, or home, or citizen. 

3. The imagination is creative. It creates the plan, 
the grouping of the material. The plan of the archi- 
tect, the ideal of the painter, the harmony of the 
musician, the artistic beauty of the poet, and the 
Universe of God are all created by the imagination. 

4. Products of the imagination are called Ideals. For 
some products, howeA^er, the term Picture of the Imag- 
ination is preferable. 

6. Imagination is employed in Memory. Defects of the 
memory are suj^plied by some act of the imagination, 
so that the past is seldom remembered just as it was. 

6. Imagination is necessary to progress. The matter 
of perception and memory is rendered fluid and mo- 
bile by the imagination, and thus it may be changed 
into idealized products. 

7. Doubtless the Imagination constructs in accordance 
with the laws of association both primary and secondary. 

48. Cognitive Imagination (54, i). The Imagination 
plays an important part in the enjoyment of life and 



Knowing iflie Intellect), 97 

in the acquisition of knowledge. The pleasure in a 
story and the vividness of its impressions depend 
upon the power to imagine the scenes suggested by 
description. In the study of Geography and History, 
we are obliged to imagine physical features, scenes 
and events. In the study of Science, descriptions of 
objects, specimens and experiments must supplement, 
to some extent, observation. By imagination space 
may be filled with geometrical figures to aid the study 
and application of the principles of Mathematics. 

49. Inventive or Philosophic Imagination (54, 2). 
In practical ways the Imagination is of the highest 
importance to man. In the many little conveniences 
and contrivances of every-day life, in all sorts of ex- 
perimenting, the imagination is the essential element. 
When the mathematician thinks out a difficult prob- 
lem, his imagination leads the way, and he conceives 
the conditions or processes or results to be so and so, 
before the steps of reasoning and proof follow. So 
the inventor mentally places the parts of machinery 
in certain relations, to produce certain results, before 
the machine can be actually constructed and operated. 
"When Hargreaves upset his wife's spinning-wheel, 
he saw in the vertical revolving spindle the ideal of 
the spinning-jenny. Watt saw the steam-engine in 
the uplifting of the lid of a tea-kettle. Galileo saw 
the principle of the pendulum in a swinging chande- 
lier." Newton, observing the law of gravitation in 
the falling of an apple, created in thought a solar 
system regulated by that law. The economist and 
the statesman must picture ideal conditions of soci- 
ety and imagine what measures might lead to desired 
results. The teacher must imagine excellent condi- 



Psychology. 



tions before improvement of the school can follow. 
Napoleon mentally fought his battles before the en- 
gagements occurred. Business men picture ideals of 
success, and the conditions necessary to their attain- 
ment. 

50. -Esthetic or Poetic Imagination (54, 3-4). 
There is another use of the Imagination involving the 
aesthetic emotions. All works of art, possessing an 
element of beauty, are the result of the poetic imagi- 
nation. The architect uses the rough building ma- 
terials to construct edifices of beauty and grandeur 
that speak to the minds and hearts of the people. 
The musician combines the elements of music into 
wonderful productions of melody and harmony. The 
sculptor chisels the rough marble into ideal forms of 
grace and strength. The painter combines scenes and 
figures of his observation into new relations of form 
and color, with a skill almost transcending nature's 
touch. The thoughts and images of the poet are 
brought into artistic relations, and we have the gran- 
deur of Milton, the grace of Chaucer, and the wonder- 
ful creations of Shakespeare. 

51. The Ethical Imagination. The Perfect. Every 
one at times pictures noble deeds to emulate, traits 
worthy of imitation, a character fashioned in harmony 
with right, — the perfect man ; and every one endeavors 
with much or little success to conform his own life to 
the ideal standard. The possession of such ideals is 
a potent factor in regulating the conduct of men. 

The Perfect in the form of Beauty, Truth and Eight 
finds a place in the imagination of man. Ever aiming 
at the attainment of perfection in art and poetry, ever 
striving to discover truth, ever wishing to know the 



Knowing iflie Intellect). 99 

right, man moves slowly onward to the realization of 
the highest ideals. Here man is essentially creative ; 
here he may be thought to transcend Nature and 
reveal the progressive self-activity due to his divine 
origin,' 

52. Growth of Imagination (54, 5 ). Children are 
full of imaginative activity. They constantly picture 
strange things, endow their playthings with human 
attributes, tell marvelous stories, and contrive little 
inventions. As their experience enlarges and their 
judgment ripens, the imagination, although not so 
luxuriant, develops in useful directions, or in accord- 
ance with the laws of good taste. 

The power of imagination may be cultivated in 
almost any direction. The genius of the poet and 
that of the inventor are but different expressions of 
the same power to recombine the elements of knowl- 
edge. 

APPLICATION'S. 

53. Principles of Memory Applied.' 

1 (35). We remember readily what is apprehended 
clearly. By noting agreements and differences an 

^ " The Imagination is able to create ideals, i.e. thoughts of the 
desirable and perfect, as types by which to test and improve na- 
ture as well as the gesthetic, intellectual and moral achievements 
of man." — Dr. Hayes. 

" When the higher objects of nature and spirit are recalled, re- 
combined, and created, with the aid of the nobler laws of associa- 
tion, for the higher ends of ideal elevation and improvement — 
when, in addition, the better feelings are addressed and excited, 
and the higher capacities of man are called into action, then the 
power becomes poetic imagination." — Dr. Porter. 

"" Kead Bain's Ed., Chap. Ill, "The Retentive Faculty." 



100 Psychology. 



idea is made clear and distinct. Note tlie common 
element in Phantasy, Memory, and Imagination ; then 
contrast Memory and Imagination ; tlie idea of each 
faculty becomes distinct, and its definition will be 
easily recalled. 

2 (36). Eesemblance and contrast are bonds of asso- 
ciation in Memory. By noting the resemblance be- 
tween a City-Republic of Mediaeval Italy and a state 
of ancient Greece, the idea of either tends to recall 
the other. We define by contrasts. This is another 
statement of the fact that we know by observing dif- 
ferences. Contrast the eastern coast of South Amer- 
ica with the western ; the knowledge of both sections 
and the probability of recalling the features of either 
is increased.^ 

3 (36). By the principle of contiguity, things which 
are to be remembered together must be studied to- 
gether, grouped in natural relations, and presented in 
logical order. If the relation and order be those of 
cause and effect, the reason will aid the memory. 

4 (36). In class work, skillful questioning may bring 
the mind in close contact with the important relations 
between facts, and these relations may become bonds 
of association for the memory. 

5 (37). Attention is the condition of memory. Con- 
centration of the mental powers upon an object is the 
die that stamps a deep impression of it upon the 
mind. 

6 (37). That there may be clear discrimination and 
distinct memory, lessons must not be too difiicult or 

^ For examples of resemblance and contrast see Tate, Part II, 
Chap. IV. 



Knowing {iJie Intellect). 101 

too long ; the essential facts and princijDles must be 
emphasized and frequently reviewed. 

7 (37). The acquisition of new ideas makes a great 
demand upon the energy. We remember what is 
studied when the powers are fresh and vigorous.' 

8 (37). The memory is aided by expressing thought. 
Exj^ression brings the whole energy of attention upon 
the subject ; hence the value of class recitation. Im- 
pressions made by the lectures of a teacher are likely 
to be very slight tinless the pupil is required to give 
back the thoughts in his own words. 

9 (37). What can not be acquired under favorable 
conditions of attention may be retained by repetition. 
Repetition helps to make ideas clear and well defined, 
and increases the probability of recall. In any case 
important ideas are to be emphasized by repetition. 

10 (37). One remembers the ideas which accord 
with his habits, tastes, and tendencies because he finds 
an interest in them. Interest invites attention. Every 
means is to be employed to awaken an interest in 
studies. With older pupils, among other things the 
teacher may appeal to worthy motives. With young- 
children, a responsive chord may be touched by a 
flexibility of method which adapts itself to the indi- 
vidual. 

11 (39). Ideas are essential; the word signs have 
merely a relative value. For the greater part memory 
should be a memory of ideas and not of words. In 
class work every means should be employed to test 
the presence of ideas in the mind of the pupil. This 
is emphatically true for such studies as Geometry and 

1 Bain's Ed., Chap. Ill, pp. 22-27. 



102 Psychology. 



Physics. In all instruction unfamiliar words should 
be defined ; that is, the idea for which the word stands 
should be gained. " Learning by heart " is often not 
learning at all, because the language is emphasized 
to the neglect of the ideas. When learning verbatim 
the presence of ideas will aid the verbal memory. 

12 (41). It is impossible to remember everything. 
Select for the memory things of prime importance. 
The encyclopaedia is a better receptacle than the mind 
for much matter that is frequently acquired. The 
mind needs power to examine the relations of the 
more important things. To know where to find in- 
formation is of great value ; this is appropriately called 
the Index Memory.^ 

13 (41). General principles, theories, laws, well un- 
derstood, will enable us to remembei* the facts con- 
nected with them. Theories are appropriately called 
the strings upon which to arrange the beads of facts. 
In all studies the important things are to be fixed in 
mind, the large features of the landscape are to be 
outlined, and afterward the details can be acquired, 
and associated with the prominent ideas. 

14 (41). Knowledge gained and forgotten is not al- 
together lost. By it we have corrected and added to 
our general impressions, although the facts may have 
vanished that aided in the growth of our opinions. 

15 (41). The absolute memory should be employed 
in learning such things as gems of literature, ac- 
curate statements of important principles, and propo- 
sitions in Mathematics. 

16 (43). Mnemonics is a system of remembering by 



Read Fitch, Chap. V. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 103 



artificial methods instead of by natural and pMlosoplii- 
cal relations. Simonides, the Greek poet, who lived 
about 500 B.C., was the first who used this method. 
He pictured in mind some large building, and became 
perfectly familiar with the different parts in a certain 
invariable order. He then committed to memory by 
associating ideas in proper order with the parts of the 
building. In most cases Mnemonics is of doubtful 
utility. Much time is wasted in learning the system, 
and, after all, the knowledge is of less value than when 
remembered in the natural way. 

17 (43). Finally, a mind well stored with ideas is 
prepared for the convenient and ready use of reason. 
The mind can thus bring into the field of view a large 
number of facts and build up judgments and princi- 
ples in view of all the circumstances that might affect 
the result. 

54. Applications of the Facts and Principles of 
THE Imagination. 

1 (48). In teaching history and geography vivid 
description is of value. If the skeleton of knowledge 
be clothed with descriptions of persons, places, and 
events the interest is increased.' Familiar objects 
help children to image the unknown. The hills, val- 
leys, and streams of the child's acquaintance may be 
used as elements with which to construct the world. 
A knowledge of the physical geography of a country 



' Rosenkranz emphasizes the value of pictures to represent 
things which can not be presented to the immediate perception. 
See Rosenkranz, §§ 86, 87. 

On teaching geography, see Fitch, Chap. XII. 



104 Psychology. 



stimulates the imaginative faculty in the study of 
history. 

2 (49). Children are naturally anxious and ready to 
examine the structure of things and to inquire into 
the causes of phenomena. There are many ways in 
daily life in which parents and teachers can call the 
attention of children to events and their causes. The 
methods of the Kindergarten, by little combinations 
and inventions, tend to educate the inventive imagi- 
nation. 

3 (50). Children naturally incline to the marvelous. 
They delight in hearing fictions. The judicious fos- 
tering of this tendency aids the constructive power of 
the child, which may afterward be of practical use. 
Burns declares that the stories, told him by his nurse, 
of fairies, giants, and enchanted towers, cultivated in 
him the latent seeds of poetry.^ The tales of mythol- 
ogy quicken the imagination and inventive power of 
young people, and make the whole mind active. In- 
deed every variety of imagination serves to give flexi- 
bility to the mental images, and prepares the way for 
invention and reason. 

4 (50). The love of poetry, music, sculpture, and 
painting not only serves for enjoyment, not only exerts 
a refining and ennobling influence, but it suggests 
ideas of perfection in execution which may lead to 
practical results. All ideals, from those of the inventor 
who aims at perfect adaptation in machinery to those of 
the poet and the moralist, have a practical value. Be- 
fore there can be progress there must be something 

' For statements concerning the literature best adapted to chil- 
dren and youth, read Rosenkranz, §§ 94-97. 



Knowing {tlie Intellect). 105 

proposed to be done, some ideal standard to attain. 
A lively imagination pictures the possibilities of ac- 
tion and accomplishment, acts as a pioneer to lead 
the way. 

5 (52). While the Imagination may be of the highest 
use in the ways indicated, the man of imagination is 
not always the man of action. One may learn to en- 
joy his fancies, may constantly picture forth possibili- 
ties and spend his time in ideal creations, when he 
should be closely following his ideals with action.^ 
So the enjoyment of fine art may become an absorb- 
ing interest to the neglect of practical duties. An 
imaginative mind may fail in the necessary examina- 
tion of facts in accordance with the principles of 
reason, and thus fall into serious error. But all 
abuse of the imagination may be corrected by re- 
straint and the cultivation of the neglected faculties. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Compare a Representative act with an act of Perception. 
In what does an Image differ from a Percept ? 

2. Illustrate the difference between Phantasy, Memory, and 
Imagination. 

3. Show that memory is an element of perception. 

4. Show that the power to discern difference and agreement is 
necessary to memory. 

5. Give an original example of a series of associated images. 



' I have fed 
Perhaps too much upon the lotos-fruits 
Imagination yields, — fruits that unfit 
The palate for the more substantial food 
Of our own land, — reality. L. E. Landon. 



106 Psychology. 



6. Give original illustrations of each of the Primary Laws. 

7. Show that the " comprehensive principle" includes the four 
laws of association. 

8. Can the four kinds of association be explained as Con- 
tiguity ? 

9. Illustrate each of the Secondary Laws. 

10. How does language aid the formation of clear images ? 

11. For the purpose of committing to memory is it desirable to 
read or study aloud ? 

12. Would it aid the memory to write an outline, for instance, 
of a chapter in history ? 

13. Show by an original illustration how the idea of time may 
arise. 

14. Is a slow memory necessarily a poor one ? 

15. Show that memory is not free from imagination. 

16. Kelate some instances of great power of memory. 

17. If one were to perceive a presence in a room not visible to 
others, how would you explain the phenomenon ? 

18. Make a definition of Cognitive Imagination ; of Philosophi- 
cal Imagination. 

19. Do we produce in imagination anything that has never 
been experienced ? What does the artist create ? 

20. Give an example of each class of ideals. 

21. Why is imagination necessary to progress ? 

22. How are sensations produced? Of what are percepts 
made ? Of what are images made ? Of what are ideals made ? 
Give illustrations. 

23. Mention some important resemblances and contrasts in 
Geography ; in History. 

24. Why will thoughts be better remembered if presented in 
logical order ? 

25. Illustrate the necessity of attending especially to the im- 
portant features of any study. 

26. Why is it difficult to acquire new ideas ? 

27. Why does vigor of body aid the memory ? 

28. Enumerate the advantages of class questioning. 

29. In the school-room should the sa-me methods be emploj'ed 
for all individuals ? 



Knowing {the Intellect). 107 

30. Make practical statements concerning economy in the use 
of memory. 

31. Does change of mental work rest the mind ? 

32. Describe some system of mnemonics. 

33. Is the moving of the lips in study an advantage ? 

34. Illustrate the use of familiar objects as aids to the cogni- 
tive imagination. 

35. In primary schools when may the cognitive imagination be 
substituted for observation ? 

36. Does Shelley's ode "The Cloud " express scientific fact as 
well as poetic beauty ? 

37. From a psychological view is poetry practical ? 

38. Write a brief essay on Ideals and Action. 



108 Psychology. 



Thinking, 
introduction. 

55. The Processes. Definitions. We have learned 
how we gain a knowledge of objects throngli Percep- 
tion and how we retain and recall that knowledge by 
acts of Memory. "We have also learned that we may 
combine these images of the memory in new relations 
and build up the creations of the Imagination. We 
are now to consider what use we can make of these 
varied products of perception and representation. 

We may not only see and remember a particular 
rose or pansy, the household dog or cat, a certain 
orange or apple, but we ma}^ think at the same time 
of many other objects of the same kind, and refer 
to them by a general term, as flower, animal, fruit. 
These general terms apply not to one object only, but 
to a group of objects more or less alike. So, on the 
ground of resemblance, the mind is accustomed to 
" seize on a number of things and bring them into a 
unity of thought," and applj^ to them a common name 
or general term. This process is called Conception 
{con and capere, to grasp together). 

Our daily conversation largely consists in simply 
affirming a relation between objects or notions ^ ; as, 

* By Notion is meant any j^roduct of Perception, or Eepresenta- 
tion, or Conception. It may be a Percept, an Image, an Ideal, 
or a Concept. 



Knowing {the Intellect), 109 

This apple is sweet, The scenes of childhood are dear, 
The sponge is a compound animal. The candidate is 
not worthy. Examine these sentences and you will 
see that each expresses a relation between two no- 
tions, and that in the first three sentences one notion 
is affirmed of the other, while in the fourth it is af- 
firmed that the two disagree. The process described 
is called Judgment. A Judgment expressed is a Prop- 
osition, and the words denoting the objects or notions 
compared are called Terms. 

We not only use "independent judgments as in the 
preceding examples, but we derive judgments from 
other judgments, or base them upon others ; examples : 
It will rain because heavy clouds are in the sky; 
This bar will attract iron, for it is a magnet ; Mr. 
Smith has cheated his creditors, therefore he is a dis- 
honest man. In each example the judgment is based 
upon a reason. Sometimes judgments are derived in 
a more formal way ; as, 

All sciences are useful ; 
Logic is a science ; 
. •. Logic is useful. 

Here the judgment " Logic is useful " is derived from 
the other judgments. We reach the conclusion be- 
cause " sciences" are contained in the class of " use- 
ful things," and Logic is reckoned among sciences. 
Things ivMch are a part of a part must he a part of the 
whole. The above are examples of Beasoning. 

The processes described and named in this section 
are the essential processes in Thinking. By their use 
the human mind advances to wonderful degrees of 
knowledge. Each process is only bringing into car- 



110 PsycJiology. 



tain relations or considering in some of tlieir parts 
the Percepts of our observation and the Images of 
Representation. 

Conception is the process of forming a general notion of 
a class of similar objects. 

Judgment is the process of comparing two notions and 
affirming that they agree or disagree. 

Reasoning is the process by which judgments are in- 
ferred. 

Thinking is the series of processes by which our Percep- 
tive and Representative knowledge is arranged. It in- 
cludes Conception, Judgment, and Reasoning. 

The product of Perception is a Percept ; the prod- 
uct of Memory is an Image or Idea ; the product of 
Phantasy is a Phantasm ; the product of Imagination 
is an Ideal or Picture of the Imagination. These prod- 
ucts are elaborated by Conception, Judgment, and 
Reasoning. The product of Conception is called a 
Concept ; the product of Judging is a Judgment ; the 
product of Reasoning is an Inference or a Conclusion. 

56. Thinking Considers Relations.' Note that, 
while Presentation and Representation deal with ob- 
jects, Thinking deals with the relations of objects. 
The objects of a class are bound together by the rela- 
tion of similarity ; a group of red objects are related 
in point of color. Judgments affirm the relation of 
agreement or difference ; " The day is rainy" expresses 
an agreement of this day with rainy days, " This coin 
is not good " points to a difference between the coun- 
terfeit coin and coins of true metal. Reasoning dis- 
covers relations of agreement and difference, not by 

» Kead Bain, Bk. II, Chap. II, p. 143. 



Knowing {the Intellect). Ill 



direct comparison of two objects, but by comparing 
each object with a third. 

Thinking deals with relations; these are relations of 
Agreement and Difference. 



CONCEPTION. 

57. The Processes. The Concept. The student in 
Botany begins the study of leaves; he makes a collec- 
tion of many kinds and observes them. By comparison 
he notes that some are netted-veined, while others are 
parallel-veined. He desires to separate the netted- 
veined leaves from the rest, and he abstracts, that is, 
draws off the characteristic, netted-veined, and con- 
siders it apart from other qualities, as shape and color, 
— in other words, he views the leaves with reference to 
this characteristic. Having selected all possessing the 
quality named, he generalizes^ that is, he applies to the 
whole group the quality netted-veined ; it is general 
to the group. Having formed this Group-Notion or 
Concept he names the group " Netted- Yeined Leaves." 
In his mind this name stands for the Concept and, 
when used, suggests the same concept to another. 

The processes in Conception are Observation, Comparison, 
Abstraction, Generalization, and Naming, 

When we use a general term what mental state 
does it represent ? "What reality is there correspond- 
ing to the term "netted-veined leaf," "animal," 
" fruit," " flower " ? This has always been a source 
of much metaphysical discussion,' but let us try an 

' "Universals [concepts] are (1) objective relations of resem- 
blance amorig objectively existing things ; (2) subjective concepts 



112 Psycliology. 



experiment for ourselves, Wlien I use the word 
flower, perhaps the image of some flower, no definite 
one, arises in the mind, an object with colored petals, 
seed-producing, etc. ; or I may have in mind a defi- 
nite flower, as a rose ; or a series of images of differ- 
ent flowers may flit through the mind. In any case 
there is some kind of image and this image stands as 
a type of the whole class of objects named. But only 
those qualities of the image wdiich are common to the 
whole class are regarded as essential, and the image 
is regarded as typical. These common qualities of 
the typical image constitute the concept. A Concept 
is a combination of qualities, common to several objects, in 
a unit of knowledge ; " it is a notion of objects grasped 
together by common properties." Dogs, birds, horses, 
men, — all animals, are grasped together by the com- 
mon properties — moving, breathing, eating. An ani- 
mal is a thing that ^moves, breathes, and eats. 

Abstract notions are concepts. The notion "red ob- 
ject" and also the abstract quality "redness" are 
concepts. 

58. Growth of the Powek (88, 89). The power to 
form concepts is shown by children in their attempts 
to apply the name of a familiar object to one similar 
in appearance. Having learned to recognize and name 
the horse, a kind of resemblance is discovered when 
the same name is applied to a cow. A child less than 
two years old, having its attention called to the moon. 



of these relations, determined in the mind by the relations them- 
selves ; and, (3) names ^ representative both of the relations and 
the concepts, and applicable to them both." 
For views of the nature of concepts, see Porter, p. 403, 



Knowing {the Intellect). 113 

afterward called a large bright seal on a parchment 
"moon." Children often invent some word for the 
various kinds of food. In an instance observed the 
syllable ^^ nunt' was used for whatever was good to 
eat, and an increase of power was shown by the use of 
an appended adjective, making " num poo'' stand for 
whatever was good to eat with a spoon. So far there 
is no conscious power of abstraction, but an almost 
instinctive recognition of crude resemblance. In the 
instance related the child could in no way have been 
made conscious that roundness was the quality com- 
mon to the moon and the seal. 

The power of forming general notions and applying 
general terms grows rapidly, until one class of domes- 
tic animals may be correctly distinguished from an- 
other, and other familiar objects may be grouped and 
named. The power of abstraction has developed to a 
considerable degree when the child, if directed, is able, 
for instance, to point out all the red or white or round 
objects in a room. It can then understand, in a way, 
that redness, or whiteness, or roundness is the quality 
binding the objects together. 

The power of savages to classify is in some ways 
about as crude as that of children. The classifications 
of the uneducated are usually very imperfect. One of 
the advantages in the study of Natural History is the 
training of the power to form general notions. 

69. Scientific Classification. Conception has been 
defined as the process of forming a general notion of 
a class of similar objects. Classification is the process 
of forming groups of similar objects. Classification is 
the actual grouping ; conception is forming a notion 
of the group. The natural groupings of objects of 



114 Psychology. 



common observation and the classifications of the 
scientist are similar, but the scientist carries the pro- 
cess farther and makes it more logical and accurate. 
The Zoologist includes under the Animal Kingdom, 
living things which subsist on organic food, breathe 
oxygen, and have the ]30wer of voluntary motion. 
Thinking of different kinds of animals, he finds some 
that have an internal jointed skeleton, and calls them 
the Branch of Vertebrates, excluding all which do 
not possess the characteristic mentioned. Calling 
the characteristics or marks of the Kingdom a and 
that of the Branch 6, evidently the Vertebrates are 
known by the marks a-\-h. Amongst the Vertebrates 
he finds some that suckle their young, and calls them 
the Class of Mammals. Mammals, then, are distin- 
guished by the marks a-]^h-{-c. Amongst the Mam- 
mals some are known as the Flesh-eaters, and are 
grouped into the Order of Carnivora, possessing the 
marks a -\- h -\- c -\- d. And so the process may be 
continued by dividing the Order into Families, each 
family into Genera, each genus into Species, each spe- 
cies into Varieties, until the Individual is reached, 
possessing marks enough to distinguish it from every 
other animal. 

The greatest danger in classifying is that of forming 
" Cross-Divisions." If we should attempt to classify 
all animals as domestic, winged, and Australian we 
should fall into this error. In this instance the divi- 
sion -is begun on the principle of domesticity, con- 
tinued on the principle of structure and again on the 
principle of location. Each of these divisions over- 
laps the others. The Zoologist proceeds in his divi- 
sions of the Animal Kingdom on the principle of 



Knowing {the Intellect). 



115 



essential structure. Each division should be made with 
reference to but one principle/ 

Diagram showing Process op Division. 

Animal Kingdom 




Vertebrates 



Mammals 



Carnivora 



etc. 



Not- Vertebrates 



Not-Mammals 



Not-Caruivora 



etc. 



Names used in Classification in Zoology. 

Kingdom 
Branches 
Classes 
Orders 
Families 
Genera 
Species 
Individuals 

Without the power to classify, progress in knowledge 
would be almost impossible. We should be obliged 
to learn the nature of every object which we might 
encounter, although Ave might have become familiar 



* For the rules of Division, see McCosh, Logic, p. 39. 



116 Psycliology. 



with a thousand similar objects. "With the power to 
classify, the essential knowledge of one object may be 
applied to numberless ones of the same kind. When 
we have learned the marks by which a class is distin- 
guished, the bare recognition that an object belongs 
to that class may suggest much incidental knowl- . 
edge. The mark by which a triangle is distinguished 
is its three-sidedness ; the moment we know a figure 
to be a triangle, we may also know that any side 
of the figure is less than the sum of the remaining 
sides, and that the sum of its angles is equal to 
two right angles.' When we place an animal among 
the Carnivora, we immediately know that its teeth 
are adapted to tearing and cutting. The Botanist, 
thoroughly acquainted with the chief characteristics 
of the common families of plants, when he recognizes 
a member of the Eose family, knows that its fruit is 
not noxious ; when he locates a plant in the Night- 
shade family, he thinks that its fruit is probably 
poisonous. In like manner the farmer forms two 
classes of sky indications, fair and foul ; with one 
class of indications he expects rain and takes measures 
to save his harvest. 

By the power to classify, we know many things through 
one thing, and we apply our knowledge of one thing to many 
things. 

60. Content and Extent. Keferring to the example 
in section 59, evidently the concept, animal, includes 
only the marks a, but it includes all the animals in the 
world. The concept, Vertebrates, includes the marks 
a-\-h, but leaves out all animals not possessing the 
marks h in addition to a. The characteristics, attri- 
butes or marks of a concept are called its Content ; 



Knowing {the Intellect). 



Ill 



the number of individuals included is called its Extent. 
As the division descends the Content increases, hut the Ex- 
tent decreases. 



% 










'-T 


•T^ 










^ 




b£ 


rn 








y^ 












e8 


/. 






^ 


2 


"3 


O/ 


y^ 








cS 


x> 


H 












J- 




3 


6 


2 

0) 









61. Use of Language in Thinking.' Language is 
indispensable to progress in thinking. When objects 
are grouped by their similarities, it seems necessary 
to label the group with a name, that it may afterward 

^ Read McCosh, Logic, pp. 53-70. 

Prof. Max Muller claims that thought and language are in- 
separable, that thought is impossible without words, and that 
first names are names of concepts and not of individuals. His 
view of the relation between thought and words is commonly- 
rejected. According to this author our treasury of words is all 
derived from the 1000 roots of the Aryan language and the 121 
primitive concepts of Aryan thought. 

" But if there is no such thing as a mere name, neither is there 
such a thing as a mere thought or a mere concept. The two are 
one and inseparable. We may distinguish them as we distinguish 
the obverse from the reverse of a coin ; but to try to separate 
them would be like trying to separate the convex from the con- 
cave surface of a lens. We think in names and in names only." 

"Now what does the Science of .Language teach us? It 
teaches, what can not be repeated too often, that all names were 
originally both abstract and general, and that it was impossible 
that they could have been anything else. Thus in analyzing, for 
instance, the name of wolf, Sk. v r ^ A' a, we found that it was de- 
rived from a root vrask, to tear, to lacerate, and meant, there- 
fore, originally no more than 'a tearing thing.' The name for 
animal, for instance, meant originally no more than a thing that 
breathes, animal being derived from anima^ and anima from a 
root AN, to breathe." 



118 Psycliology. 



be held together in the mind and known. Without 
these word signs our conception of classes would be 
confused and limited. 

In processes of Judgment and Eeasoning, the com- 
paring of notions is facilitated by the use of auditory 
and visual signs, namely, the words representing those 
notions and their relations. Through language the 
relations between notions become more definite as ob- 
jects of knowledge. By the use of language the atoms 
of thought become cr^^stallized into definite forms. 
We can imagine how meager our knowledge of 
Mathematics would be if we could compute only by 
using a large number of objects, as sticks or balls. 
But when figures, letters and signs are used, each 
standing for some fixed quantity or relation, progress 
in knowledge of numbers is easy. By these signs each 
step of reasoning is fixed and the mind is left free to 
move forward to new discovery. A word may help to 
develop a concept that almost or quite goes beyond 
the power of imaging, as virtue, infinity, a million. 

Perhaps we find at times that language is inade- 
quate to express our thoughts and feelings, and so 
our experience is never clearly defined hj ourselves, 
and never communicated to others. 

62. Abuse of Words.' Clearness of Concepts' (90, 
91). When we consider that children learn many 
words before they have a knowledge of the things for 
which they stand, that adults often learn the use of 
words in a mechanical way without concerning them- 
selves about the exact notions which the words should 



^Read Locke, Bk. Ill, Chap. X ; also McCosh, Logic, pp. 70-78. 
'Read Locke, Bk. Ill, Chap. XI ; also McCosh, Logic, pp. 78-83. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 119 

represent, tliat words are applied loosely, sometimes 
in one way and sometimes in another, that our knowl- 
edge of a thing is frequently incomplete and inaccu- 
rate, that one man looks at a subject from one stand- 
point, and another from a different point of view, we 
can not wonder at the confusion and misunderstanding 
that often arise in the communication of thought. 
Inaccurate concepts, imperfect definition of words, and 
diiFerence in use of words are the occasion of confusion in the 
use of language. 

The word IdeQ is sometimes confined in its meaning 
to Image, sometimes it means both Image and Con- 
cept ; by metaphysicians it is given two meanings, 
each differing from the other and from the meanings 
just mentioned. Think of the word church and learn 
how many applications it may have. The word clever 
as used in England and in the United States conveys 
very different ideas. Many who use the expressions 
would find it difficult to tell what they mean by Ce7i- 
tralization of Poiver, or Conservation of Energy. Men by 
their conduct often show that they confound liberty, 
which means not only freedom for one's self but non- 
interference with the rights of others, with license. 
Two men may argue fiercely for hours without even 
talking to a common point, because one has one notion 
in the mind answering to a given term, and the other a 
totally or partly different notion. 

That we may avoid errors in the use of words, clear 
concepts are necessary. To possess clear concepts 
and to be able to illustrate with concrete examples, — 
this is the important rule. In the use of abstract 
terms there is the greatest tendency to vagueness. 
We should practice filling every empty word with 



120 Psychology. 



meaning. A word wliich goes utterly beyond our 
experience and definite conception is an empty sound. 
What is called precision in the use of words, giving 
them neither more nor less than well established usage 
allows, is next in importance. To this end the habit 
of defining words by the aid of the dictionary is neces- 
sary. In argument, whenever a misunderstanding 
arises, a definition and illustration may be sought by 
common consent. Loose metliods of thinking may he 
corrected in part by rigid practice informing char concepts^ 
and in correctly defining the use of ivords, 

JUDGMENT. 

63. Nature and Growth of Judgment (88, 89). 

Judgment is the process of comparing two notions and 
affirming that they agree or disagree. 

I discern that sodium possesses the qualities which 
belong to metals, i.e. that the two things agree, and I 
affirm the agreement " Sodium is a metal." I discern 
a disagreement between carbon and metals, and affirm 
the disagreement " Carbon is not a metaL" These are 
judgments. 

The Judgment is early developed ; this is seen in 
such expressions of the child as "sugar good," or 
simply "good," two notions being virtually compared. 
The power grows rapidly, and soon simple remarks 
are freel}^ made about familiar objects and experi- 
ences. Any more noticeable quality or- j)henomenon 
connected with an object aw^akens an intuitive judg- 
ment in the mind of the child that the quality belongs 
to the object, and he expresses it ; as, " The ball is 
white ;" " The fire is hot." 



Knowing {the Intellect), 121 

64. Beliefs. When a judgment expresses a real, a 
truth-relation, or when it so appears to us, we believe it. 
Belief is assent to a proposition, a regarding it as true. 

(1) Some beliefs are founded upon necessity. We 
learned under Perception a limited list of Necessary 
Ideas. Certain truths expressed about these Ideas are 
called Necessary Truths' and we must believe them. 
The following are examples of Necessary Truths : 

Necessary Ideas. Necessary Truths. 

Being Objects exist or have being. 

Cause Every event has a cause. 

Space Space has no limit. 

Time Time is continuous. 

Number Things equal to the same thing are 

equal to one another. 
Resemblance ) Whatever is true of a class, is true 
Difference ) of all the members of a class. 

(2) We are naturally disposed to accept the state- 
ments and opinions of others as true. (3) Our desires 
and prejudices often influence us toward certain beliefs 
because those beliefs are agreeable. (4) We gradually 
grow into many beliefs through experience. These 
statements do not include belief in the conclusions 
which are reached by formal processes of Logic. 
Beliefs are based upon Necessity, Opinion of others, In- 
clination, and Experience. 

Our prejudices play too important a part in the 
formation of our beliefs, or, at least, in the unguarded 
expression of hasty opinions. We are likely to re- 
gard people as they may hajDpen to affect us. A little 
delicate flattery will incline us to think well of a per- 

* For a brief account of necessary truths see Appendix. 



122 - Psychology. 



son wlio may be unworthy, while an unpleasant ex- 
perience in some unimportant matter will lead us to 
judge ill of the person's essential character. A judi- 
cial mind, one that will seek out and weigh the essen- 
tial facts, without reference to personal like or dislike, 
is one of the attainments of a well-balanced and gen- 
erous character. 

Experience is the ground of most of our beliefs. 
When a sailor believes that a storm will come, he 
bases his belief on his experience with certain indica- 
tions ; we believe that we shall die because of the 
experience of mankind in the past. Faith in the con- 
tinued existence of nature and the uniform operation 
of her laws results from experience. 

65. Terms. Before passing to the discussion of 
Judgments or Propositions, it is necessary to know 
something of terms. Objects of thought have names 
by which they are known. In Logic these names are 
called Terms. A term may consist of one word, as 
" book," or of several words, as " The President of the 
United States." A term may be an adjective, stand- 
ing for some quality as " hard," "transparent." 

Amongst terms we find some referring to single 
things, as " The inkstand," " Bunker Hill Monument," 
"America." Names of single things are called Singular 
Terms. Other names refer to classes of things, as 
"plant," "citizen," "house;" each of these names 
may be applied not only to one thing but also to very 
many things of the same kind. Names which are com- 
mon to many things are called General Terms. When I 
say "United States Navy," I am using a singular term, 
because it refers to a definite thing, that is, the war 
vessels of the United States regarded as a unit ; but 



Knowing {tJie Intellect). 123 

the term is also Collective, because many vessels are 
included. The term " navy," however, is general, be- 
cause it may be applied to the war ships of any 
nation ; the term is also Collective. The name of 
many things regarded as a unit is a Collective Term. Sin- 
gular Terms and General Terms may also be Collective. 

Some names are applied to objects, as "tree," 
" gold ;" others to characteristics, as '' height," " duc- 
tility." The names of things are called Concrete Terms; 
the names of qualities, Abstract Terms. 

Some terms express the existence of qualities, others 
indicate the absence of certain qualities ; examples : 
" desirable," " undesirable ;" " placable," " impla- 
cable;" "voluntary," "non-voluntary;" "acquaint- 
ance," " non-acquaintance" or " stranger." Names 
which express the existence of qualities are called Positive 
Terms ; names which indicate the absence of certain quali- 
ties are called Negative Terms. 

What kind of a term is each of the following? — The 
Caesars ; The Emperor of China ; Ingratitude ; Ea- 
tional ; Library ; The Museum of Natural History ; 
Goodness ; Stone ; Friendly ; Nou- conformity ; A Thou- 
sand ; Citizen ; School. 

66. The Proposition, Analysis' of. Judgments ex- 
pressed are called Propositions. Examining some propo- 
sition, as " Books are useful," we discover two terms, 
"books" and "useful," and a verb called the Copula 
serving to affirm the relation between the things de- 
noted by the terms. The first term, denoting that 
about which something is said, that which is com- 
pared, is called the Subject, and the last term, denoting 
that with which the subject is compared, is called the 
Predicate, Every proposition contains three elements, — 



124 Psychology. 



two terms and a copula. The first term in a proposition is 
called the subject, and the last the predicate. 

Some propositions seem to contain more or less 
than these three elements, as "The man speaks," 
"monet,'' "To live uprightly is the duty of man." In 
the first example, the verb "speaks" contains both 
copula and predicate, and the proposition may be ex- 
pressed, "The man is speaking." The Latin verb 
" monef contains a complete judgment which may be 
expressed, " ille est monens,'' he is advising. In the 
last example, "to live uprightly" expresses but a 
single notion and is the subject; "duty of man" is the 
logical predicate. 

67. Categorical, Hypothetical, and Disjunctive Prop- 
ositions. Kinds of Categorical Propositions. The 
propositions used above are Categorical^ i.e. stated 
positively or unconditionally; as, "Iron is the most 
useful metaL" There is a class of propositions in 
which the assertion is made, subject to a condition ; as, 
" If men are wise, they will do right." This is a Hypo- 
thetical proposition. The condition is called the An- 
tecedentf and the conclusion the Consequent. Again, 
propositions may contain several alternatives among 
which we may select ; we must choose one or more of 
the alternatives, but not all the alternatives can be 
true at the same time. Example, "A function of the 
United States Government is either legislative or ex- 
ecutive or judicial. " This kind of proposition is 
called Disjunctive.^ 

* The subject of a disjunctive proposition is regarded as the 
genus, and the members of the predicate constitute the species. 
The species must make up the genus, and the members must be 
mutually exclusive. 



Knowing {the Intellect), 125 

Logicians classify Categorical propositions accord- 
ing to Quantity as Universal or Particular, and accord- 
ing to Quality as Affirmative or Negative. Making 
cross-division of these classes, we have four kinds of 
categorical propositions which are commonly desig- 
nated by the letters A, E, I, O, each letter invariably 
representing the same kind of proposition. This may 
be seen in the following arrangement : 
A, Universal Affirmative ; example, " All fixed stars are 

suns." 
E, Universal Negative ; example, " No work of man is 

enduring." 
I, Particular Affirmative ; example, " Some men are self- 
ish." 
0, Particular Negative ; example, " Some men are not 
selfish." 
68. Distribution of Terms. It is necessary to learn 
when a term is said to be distributed. Using the 
scheme of circles employed by the mathematician 
Euler, let us examine each kind of proposition with 
this view. 

In the Universal Affirmative, as "All metals are use- 
ful," the relation of the terms may be expressed graphi- 
cally thus : 




126 Psychology. 



The larger circle includes all '' useful things," and the 
smaller all " metals." The subject " metals" is Bis- 
tributed, because something is said of every metal ; it is 
asserted of every metal that it belongs to the class of 
useful things. It would be absurd to say conversely, 
" All useful things are metals ;" there are numberless 
useful things of which nothing is said, hence the predi- 
cate is Undistributed. 

Taking an example of the Universal Negative, " No 
work of man is enduring," evidently the subject is 
Distributed, since something is said of every work of 
man, namely, that it is not enduring. Examining the 
predicate, we see that every " enduring thing" is shut 
out from the class of things "made by man;" hence 
the predicate is Distributed. Subject and predicate 
in this case are mutually exclusive. It is predicated 
that no work of man can be enduring, and that no 
enduring thing can be a work of man. The relation 
of the terms may be thus shown : 




If we say, "Some buildings are made of wood," 
Particular Affirmative, there are other buildings of 
which nothing is said, and there are other things made 
of wood of which nothing is said ; hence neither term 
is distributed. Here the relation of the circles shows 



Knowing {the Intellect). 



127 



that some buildings belong to the class of things made 
of wood, but that there may be other buildings, con- 
structed of some other material, of which nothing is 
said. 




In the Particular Negative proposition, '' Some books 
are not valuable," nothing is said of the whole class 
of books ; hence the subject is Undistributed. But it is 
stated that the whole class of "valuable things" is 
excluded from the class of " some books ;" hence the 
predicate is Distributed. Drawing the circles and plac- 
ing the class of "some books" outside, as excluded 
from the class of " valuable things," and all remaining 
books~ inside, using a dotted arc to indicate that no 
statement is made about them, we have the following : 




128 



Psychology. 



To sum up : 

A^ Subject Distributed; Predicate Undistributed. 

E, Subject Distributed; Predicate Distributed. 

I, Subject Undistributed ; Predicate Undistributed. 

0, Subject Undistributed; Predicate Distributed. 
69. Implied Judgments. From the relations of the four 

kinds of propositions, if they refer to the same subject, inferences 
may be drawn. Also, immediate inferences may be drawn 
from any proposition without a formal process of reasoning, in- 
ferences which are implied in the truth of the proposition. 

Opposition. The relations of Opposition are shown by the 
following diagram employed by logicians : 



All studies are -. 
practical. JJi 



CONTRARIES. 



Some studies 
are practical. 




ENo study is 
practical. 



I ^UB-C0NTRARIE5. ^^\Z^.t^S. 

Concerning these relations the following statements may be 
made : 

1. Contrary Opposition. If it is true that "every study is 
practical," it is false that "no study is practical;" if it is true 
that "no study is practical," it is false that "every study is 
practical." Both statements may be false, and probably are in 
this case, for some studies may be practical and others not. 
From the truth of A we infer the falsehood of E, and vice 
versa. Both A and E may be false. Considering the Sub- 
Contrary relation^ it may be true that "some studies are prac- 



Knowing {the Intellect), 129 

tical," at the same time that it is true that "some studies are 
not practical." If I can prove it false that "some studies are 
practical," it must be true that " some studies are not practical," 
and vice versa. I and may both be true. By proving the 
falsehood of either, the truth of the other is established. 

2. Suhalternation. In like manner we may form a rule for 
subalterns. From the truth of A or E we infer the truth of I 
or 0. If I or is false, A or E is false. 

3. Contradictory Opposition. If A or E is true, the corre- 
sponding Contradictory or I is false, and vice versa. If A or 
E is false, the corresponding Contradictory or I is true, and 
vice versa. 

One or two practical remarks upon the Rules of Opposition may 
be made. We may prove a statement directly, or, as often in 
Geometry, we may establish the truth of a proposition by proving 
the falsehood of its contradictory. In argument it is useless to 
make issue with contrary propositions; as: Aff, — "All labor 
organizations are harmful;" Neg. — "No labor organization is 
harmful." The disputants should face each other in this way: 
Aff. — ' ' All labor organizations are harmful ;" Neg. — ' ' Some labor 
organizations are not harmful," — when a conclusion may be 
reached. 

Conversion of Propositions. From the proposition A, "All 
diamonds are valuable," it may be inferred that "some valuable 
things are diamonds." Observe that here a limiting word is 
prefixed to the former predicate, "valuable," in order that the 
CO averted statement may be true. When conversion of a propo- 
sition requires the use of a limiting word, it is called Conver- 
sion by Limitation. A and E may be thus converted. 

From the proposition E, "No scientific theory is perfect," we 
have, by conversion without change, "No perfect thing is a 
scientific theory." From the conversion of I, "Some scientific 
theories are perfect," we have, " Some perfect things are scientific 
theories." When a proposition is converted without change of 
form, the process is called Simple Conversion. E and I may 
be thus converted. 

To suit the character of the Particular Negative proposition O, 
a special method of conversion is necessary; example, "Some 



130 . Psycliology. 



citizens are not law-abiding." We cannot change this by simple 
conversion, for it would then read, "Some law-abiding persons 
are not citizens." But, by attaching the negative to the predicate 
instead of the copula, we have a legitimate conversion, ' ' Some 
not-law-abiding persons [law-breakersj are citizens." When con- 
version is effected by attaching the negative to the predicate 
and then transposing the terms, the process is called Conver- 
sion by Negation. 

Addition of Subject and Predicate. By prefixing a sub- 
ject and a predicate to the terms of a proposition, a new proposi- 
tion maybe derived; example, "London is the largest city of 
England," hence " The Mayor of London is mayor of the largest 
city of England." 

Addition of Marks. Judgments may be inferred by modi- 
fying both subject and predicate of a proposition ; example, 
"America is a free nation;" modified, "America in her pros- 
perity is a free nation in prosperity." This method of inferring 
judgments must be made with care, else it will lead to ridiculous 
conclusions. From the fact that a rat is an animal it does not 
follow that a large rat is a large animal. 

Privative Conception. By this method we change an affirm- 
ative proposition to its equivalent negative, or a negative to an 
affirmative. Examples :" All true friendships are enduring;" 
" No true friendship is fickle." " Not all pious men are sincere ;" 
" Some pious men are insincere." 

Importance of Studying Implied Judgments. In the study 
of Implied Judgments we derive benefit by examining a state- 
ment from the standpoint of both terms, also by realizing what 
is implied by statements in their relations of "opposition." A 
knowledge of the principles of Implied Judgments may often aid 
in the study of the syllogism, since we may thus detect the real 
character of obscure propositions. In short, knowledge is often 
gained by viewing a subject in every light. 



Knoiolng {tlte Intellect). 



131 



RExiSONING. 
INTRODUCTION. 

70. Nature of Reasoning. Reasoning is the process by 
which Judgments are inferred. There are two methods 
of reasoning, Deductive and Inductive. Example of 
the first : 



All men are mortal; 
Socrates is a man; 
Socrates is mortal. 




Here "Socrates" and "mortal beings" are compared 
by means of a middle term, " man ;" hence Deductive 
Reasoning is an act of Judgment by a mediate process. 
The form of reasoning shown in the example is a Syl- 
logism. A Syllogism is an argument according to regular 
form. Example of Induction : 

A, B, and C [men of former generations] were mortal; 
A, B, and C represent mankind; 
. '. All men are mortal. 

Inductive reasoning is the process of inferring general 
judgments from particular instances. It will be noted 
that the conclusion of the Induction becomes the 
general proposition of the Deduction. By induction 
we infer generals from particulars ; by deduction we 



132 



Psychology. 



infer particulars from generals. Induction elaborates 
principles ; deduction applies them. The relation be- 
tween Induction and Deduction may be seen in the 
diagram. 




All men 



MORTAL 




A Mortal J 
■> B Mortal q 

r+ 

C Mortal § 

Perception gives us the crude materials of thought ; 
Memory retains them ; Imagination modifies them ; 
Conception groups them ; Judgment exj)resses rela- 
tions between them ; Keasoning elaborates them to 
discover and apply principles. We may now use a 
device sometimes employed and construct the Knowl- 
edge Pyramid. 




Phant/\sy — Phaimtabmei. 






Memory 



MADE.! 



Pe 



RCEPTinN 



„ Necessary \deps. 

- Percepts. 



Eeason is the cap-stone of the Pyramid. Reason 
is the crowning power of the Intellect. Reason 
enters into all intellectual processes : it infers causes 
in Perception, it tests the Memory, it approves Ideals, 
it helps construct Concepts, it proves Judgments. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 133 

Reason controls the Emotions and guides tlie Will. It 
discloses the laws of mathematics, discovers causes in 
science, establishes principles and constructs philo- 
sophical systems. By it the world is brought into 
unity of thought and the plan of the Creator is re- 
vealed. 

71. Growth of Reasoning (88, 89). Sully relates of 
a child 21 months old : " His father told him not 
to eat some brown sugar which he was taking 
out of a bag. He answered promptly and em- 
phatically, * Ni ! ' This was clearly finding a rea- 
son by way of justification. — * I eat it because it is 
nice.' " At an early age the child is ever seeking the 
lohy, and is unconsciously trying thus to develop its 
reasoning power. The child in avoiding the fire does 
so because he has learned that fire burns, and he 
infers the result of a repetition of the experience. 
When a child, on hearing the remark that it will rain, 
immediately begins to cry and exclaims that he can- 
not go to see his playmate, he has drawn a hasty in- 
ference from the experience that he is not allowed to 
go out in the rain. The reasons of every-day life are 
often very incorrect or frivolous, but many sound 
conclusions ^ are reached, even by the uneducated, 
which are drawn from the experience of years. We 
hear men expressing convictions upon the most im- 
portant points with confidence ; as, " A republic is the 
best form of government ;" "Labor organizations are 
beneficial ;" " A double money standard is desira- 
ble ; " and, if urged, they would be able to give reasons 
for their beliefs, showing a substantial process of 
thinking. There is a certain quickness of judgment 
often called tact, which, without any apparent process 



134 Psychology. 



of reasoning, takes in at a glance the features of a 
case and readies correct conclusions. 

72. Use of Logic. Since men reason naturally with- 
out regard to set forms, and reach wise' conclusions, 
w^hat is the use of logic ? We might ask, *' Since 
many uneducated people reason correctly about 
phenomena of the physical world, why study the 
science of Physics ?" An acquaintance with general 
principles and laws, ^nd the power to detect common 
errors, are an advantage in any field of knowledge. 
The mind, in reasoning, acts according to laws, and it 
is the work of the Logician to discover and express 
them. From an ignorance of these laws people, in 
their crude attempts to reason, often fall into errors. 
We may express the chief advantages of Logic briefly 
thus : It acquaints us with the laws of the mind in 
correct reasoning, hence men find it a valuable instru- 
ment in the pursuit of knowledge ; it enables us to 
detect error in our own reasoning and that of others ; 
it is in itself a valuable training for the mind. The 
essential principles of Logical Eeasoning follow. 

deductive reasoning. 

73. Nature and Form of the Syllogism. Canons. 

In syllogistic reasoning an inference is drawn by com- 
paring two terms through the medium of a third, 
called the Middle Term. The following is an example 
of a formal Syllogism : 

Major Premise— AW sciences (Middle Term) are useful; 
Minor Premise— Lo^\q, is a science {Middle Term); 
Conclusion— ~Log\Q {Minor Term) is useful {Major Term). 



Knowing {the Intellect). 135 

Here the two terms "Logic" and "useful" are com- 
pared with the common term "science;" these terms 
are found to agre.e with the middle term and hence 
are said to agree with each other ; this fact is stated 
in the Conclusion, "Logic is useful." The subject of 
the conclusion is called the Minor Term ; the predicate of 
the conclusion is called the Major Term ; the term with 
which the major and minor are compared is called the Mid- 
dle Term; the proposition containing the major term is 
called the Major Premise ; the proposition containing the 
minor term is called the Minor Premise ; the inference is 
called the Conclusion. 

The principles regulating syllogistic reasoning are 
called the Canons of the Syllogism. In the syllogism 
given we see that the whole class of "sciences" are 
declared to be "useful," and that "Logic" is affirmed 
to belong to the class of " sciences ;" hence we con- 
clude that "Logic is useful." We may infer the fol- 
lowing : First Canon : Whatever is affirmed of a class may 
be affirmed of all the members of that class. Whatever is 
denied of a class may be denied of all the members of the 
class. To show the need of stating the same principle 
in another form to meet some cases the following syl- 
logism may be used : 

That which revolves around the earth is its satellite; 
The moon is that which revolves around the earth; 
. •. The moon is its satellite. 

Here " satellite" and " moon" are each equivalent to 
" that which revolves around the earth." Second Canon : 
Notions equivalent to one and the same third notion are 
equivalent to one another. Two notions one of which 
is equivalent and the other not equivalent to one and the 
same notion are not equivalent to one another. 



136 Psychology. 



74. Rules of the Syllogism. The following rules of 
the Syllogism, old as Logic itself, must be carefully 
studied. 

I. Each syllogism has three terms, neither more nor less. 

II. A syllogism must contain three propositions and no 
more than three. 

III. The middle term must be distributed in one of the 
premises. 

IV. No term must be distributed in the conclusion which 
has not been distributed in one of the premises. 

V. From two negative premises no conclusion can be 
drawn. 

VI. If one premise is negative, the conclusion must be 
negative. 

VII. From two particular premises no inference can be 
made. 

VIII. If one premise is particular, the conclusion is par- 
ticular. 

Let us examine the syllogism in section 73 and see 
whether, according to these rules, it is valid. There 
are three terms, "Logic," "useful," and "sciences," 
and three propositions ; thus Kules I and II are 
observed. Examining the middle term, " sciences," we 
see that it is distributed in the major premise, since it 
is the subject of a Universal Affirmative ; it is not dis- 
tributed in the minor premise, since it is there the pre- 
dicate of a Universal Affirmative, — but one distribution 
of the middle term is sufficient ; hence Rule III is ob- 
served. In the conclusion, which is a Universal 
Affirmative, the term "Logic" is distributed and the 
predicate " useful " is undistributed. In the minor 
premise " Logic" is also distributed, being the subject 
of A. In the major premise, " useful " is undistributed 



Knowing (the Intellect). 



1B7 




as being the predicate of A ; hence there is no viola- 
tion of Eule ly. With reference to Rule YII, both 
premises are universal. That 
the remaining three rules are 
not violated is evident at a 
glance. Therefore we con- 
clude that the syllogism is 
perfectly valid. This fact 
may be shown also by using 
circles. • *' Sciences" are in- 
cluded among " useful things;" 
" Logic" is included among 
" sciences ;" hence " Logic" 
"useful things." 

Violations of these rules of the syllogism are called 
Formal or Logical Fallacies. It is necessary to con- 
sider some of the more common Logical Fallacies. 
The rules of the syllogism will be taken up in order. 

I. That there may be only three terms in a syllo- 
gism is evident from the fact that the essential method 
of the syllogism is the comparing of two terms with 
each other by means of a third. The rule is violated 
in the following example used by Dr. McCosh : 



is contained amongst 



Every one desires happiness; 
Goodness is happiness; 
Every one desires goodness. 



Here are fiNQ terms : " every one," " desirous of hap- 
piness," " goodness," " happiness," " desirous of good- 
ness ;" hence the conclusion is not valid. This is 
called Fallacy of more than Three Terms. Other falla- 
cies which may be explained as violations of Rule 
I are Fallacy of Equivocation (including Fallacy of 



1 88 Psychology. 



Ambiguous Middle), Fallacy of Composition, Fallacy of 
Division. 

As an example of Fallacy of Equivocation we may 
use the following : 

All metals are elements; 
Pewter is a metal; 
. •. Pewter is an element. 

The middle term " metals" is used in the major 
premise in the scientific sense ; in the minor premise 
it is used in a general sense ; hence there are really 
four terms and no conclusion can be drawn. A trivial 
illustration of equivocal middle term is this : 

Light is contrary to darkness; 
Feathers are light; 
. •. Feathers are contrary to darkness. 

Fallacy of Composition is shown in the following : 

All legislators are very likely to err; 
The U. S. Senate is a body of legislators; 
.-. The TJ. S. Senate is very likely to err. 

Here the conclusion may be true independently, but 
it cannot be drawn from the premises, because there 
are really four terms. The term " all legislators" is 
used distributively, meaning " any one legislator," 
while the term " body of legislators" is collective. 
Evidently there is not the same probability that a 
body of men will err as that -any individual of the 
body will fall into error. 

Fallacy of Division is thus sliown : 

The citizens of the town are prosperous; 
A and 5 are citizens of the town; 
. •. A and B are prosperous. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 139 

In this case the term " citizens" in the major prem- 
ise is used collectively, while in the minor premise it 
is used distributively and no conclusion can follow. 
Again, there are really four terms in the syllogism. 

II. The second rule hardly needs illustration. 
Since there are three terms in a syllogism, one propo- 
sition is needed to compare the major term with the 
middle, one to compare the minor term with the mid- 
dle, and one to assert the relation between the major 
and the minor. Thus only three propositions are 
required. 

III. Violation of Eule III is called Fallacy of Un- 
distributed Middle. 

All good governments are republican; 
Mexico is a republic; 
. •. Mexico has a good government. 

The middle term is predicate of an affirmative propo- 
sition in both premises, and hence is not distributed. 
The conclusion is not valid. This may be shown by 
the following diagram : 




In the major premise no assertion is made concern- 
ing all republics, for there may be republics not hav- 
ing a good government to which class Mexico may 



140 Psychology. 



and does belong. Mexico must be within tlie large 
circle, but not necessarily within the circle of " good 
governments." 

IV. Any violation of Eule IV is called Fallacy of 
Illicit Process of Major or Minor Term. Here follows 
an illustration of this fallacy : 

Whatever directly increases wealth is practical; 
The study of poetry does not directly increase wealth; 
. •. The study of poetry is not practical. 

The major term '' practical," being predicate of an 
affirmative, is not distributed in the premises, but is 
distributed in the conclusion, because it is predicate 
of a negative proposition. 

Thinos 



The circle of " things directly increasing wealth" is 
predicated to be contained within the circle of " prac- 
tical things," while " poetry" is predicated simply not 
to be contained within the circle of " things directly 
increasing wealth." It may be contained in the circle 
of " practical things," or it may stand wholly outside. 
V. If A is not equal to B and C is not equal to B, 
we cannot draw an inference as to the relation be- 
tween A and C. The Fallacy of Negative Premises re- 



Knowing {the Intellect). 



141 



suits from an attempt to draw a conclusion from two 
negative premises. It is shown in this example : 

No classical study is advantageous; 
German is not a classical study; 
. *. German is advantageous. 

The fallacy is evident from the relation of the circles. 




I CERriAM.1 



While " German" is excluded from " classical studies," 
it may be within the circle of "advantageous things" 
or without the circle. 

YI. If A is excluded from B and G is included in 
Aj we must infer that C is excluded from B. 





Names are not given to violations of this or the two 
following rules. 



142 Psychology. 



YII. Example under Kule YII : 

Some public officials are corrupt; 
Some good men are public officials; 
. '. Some good men are corrupt. 

" Some good men" may be included amongst " pub- 
lii3 officials" without being within the circle of " cor- 
rupt people." No conclusion can be drawn from two 
particular premises. 




YIII. This rule may be illustrated thus : ^ 

All American citizens are free; .,^^^ 

Some ISTegroes are American citizens; ^ 

. •. Some Negroes are free. ^ 

This conclusion is valid, for no principle of tpe syl- 
logism is violated. But it would be incorrect Ao form 
a general conclusion and say, "All Negroes are free." 

75. Moods. Figures. Since there are four kinds of 
Major Premises, and each of these four kinds may 
have four Minors, making 16 pairs of premises, and 
each of the 16 pairs may have four kinds of Con- 
clusions, evidently there may be 64 forms called 
Moods of the syllogism ; but only 11 of theses are 
valid, the remainder violating the rules given above. 

Also there are three (some agree to four) Figures of 



Knoiolng {the Intellect). 143 

the syllogism, depending upon the position of the 
middle term in the premises. 

But the study of Moods and Figures belongs to ex- 
tended works upon Logic, and it is of doubtful utility 
to the ordinary student, since the Figure does not 
affect the essential form or the laws* of the syllogism, 
and the invalid Moods may be detected as ordinary 
fallacies. 

76. The Enthymeme. The ordinary method of rea- 
soning is not the formal one just studied, but it is always 
abridged. An abridged syllogism is called an Enthymeme. 
Instead of the full form given in the example, we may 
say : " Logic is useful, for all scientific study is use- 
ful," or "Logic is useful because it is a scientific 
study." In our every-day reasoning one or two ele- 
ments of the syllogism are usually omitted. We say 
simply, "It will rain to-morrow;" but, if forced to a 
reason, we say, "Because it is cloudy;" and, if urged 
still further, we must state the Major Premise, " It al- 
ways rains directly after such indications." We may 
conclude that all our deductive reasoning implies the full 
form of the syllogism with major and minor premises, even 
when the full form is not stated. ' 

77. Hypothetical Syllogism. Referring to section 67, 

we find mentioned three classes of propositions, Categorical, 
Hypothetical, and Disjunctive. In the processes of reasoning so 
far presented categorical propositions have been employed. 
There are forms of reasoning in which a Hypothetical or Disjunc- 
tive proposition is employed. The first form is the Hypothetical 
Syllogism. Example : 

If there be plenty of rain in the spring in Colorado, there will be good 

crops {Major Premise) ; 
But there is abundance of rain this spring {Minor Premise) ; 
.-. There will be good crops. 

' For a difterent view see Spencer, Vol. II, Part VI, Chap. VIII, 
|§ 302 and 305. 



144 Psychology. 



Still another illustration : 

If this scheme is a good one, it will prove well in application ; 
It does not prove well in application ; 
. •. The scheme is not good. 

The first example, in which the Minor Premise is aflSrmative, is 
called a Constructive Hypotlietical Syllogism ; the second example, 
in which the Minor is negative, is called a Destructive Hypotheti- 
cal Syllogism. In the first example the Antecedent is affirmed, 
and in the second example the Consequent is denied ; and the 
conclusion is valid in both cases. These are typical cases, and 
we may infer the rule — In the Hypothetical Syllogism we 
must affirm the Antecedent or deny the Consequent. 

A violation of the above Kule is called Fallacy of Condition- 
als. By denying the Antecedent we fall into a fallacy. In the 
first example, if we were to deny the Antecedent and say, "There 
is not plenty of rain," we could not infer that the crops would 
be poor, because summer rains, an abundance of snow in the 
mountains, together with the use of irrigating ditches, might 
insure good crops. The fallacy of affirming the Consequent is 
seen in this example : 

If men are honest, they will be successful ; 
This man is successful ; 
. •. He is honest. 

In fact, there are many apparently successful men who are not 
honest, and this possibility is not denied by the syllogism ; hence 
this man may belong to the class of dishonest persons. 

Hypothetical syllogisms may be put in the categorical form 
and fall under the rules of the syllogism already stated. Thus 
the second example would read: 

All good schemes prove well ; 
This scheme does not prove well ; 
.*. The scheme is not a good one. 

78. Disjunctive Syllogism, in a general form, the Dis- 
junctive Syllogism may be thus expressed: Affirmative Mood — 

A is either JB or C {Major Premise) ; 
Ais B {Minor D'eniise) • 
.*. A Is not C. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 145 



Example: 

The function of the President is either executive, or judicial, or legis- 
lative; 
His function is executive; 
.-. It is not judicial or legislative. 



ISfegative Mood — 



Example: 



A is either i? or C ; 
A is not B ; 

^is a 



This man in this case is influenced either by duty or by policy ; 
But it is contrary to his character to be influenced by duty ; 
.'. He is influenced by policy. 

" The Disjunctive Syllogism proceeds on the principle that 
the notion is divided into subordinate species, and is governed 
by the rules of Logical Division: that the species must make up 
the genus, and that the species must exclude one another. " 

The first example is true only on the supposition that the terms are 
mutually exclusive. If there is a function belonging to the Presi- 
dent that is both judicial and executive, then this mixed function 
should be expressed in the major premise. 
Disjunctive Syllogisms may be expressed in categorical form, as: 

Every executive function of the government is non-judicial and non- 
legislative; 
The function of the President is executive; 
-. It is non-judicial and non-legislative. 

79. Dilemma. There are four forms of the Dilemma: 

First, the Simple Constructive— 

If A is B, or if C is D, ^ is i^ 
But either A is B, or C is Z) ; 
.-. ^isi^. 

Example : 

If the judge decides the case in favor of A, or if he decides in favor 

of B, he will incur censure ; 
But either he must decide in favor of A, or he must decide in favor 

of B. 
.•. He must incur censure. 



146 Fsycliology. 



Second, the Complex Constructive — 

If A is B, C isJD; and if E is F, is H; 
But either 4 is i?, or ^ is i^; 
.-. Either C is B, or G is H. 

Third, ihQ Simple Destructive — - 

If A is B, a is B and E is F\ 
But either C is not B^ or -E' is not F\ 
.'. ^ is not B. 
Kxample : 

If you are to be happy in public office, your party must approve your 
measures, and the opposing party must be pleased ; 

But either your party will not approve, or the opposing party will not 
be pleased ; 
.-. You can not be happy in office. 

Fourth, the Complex Destructive — 

If A is ^, (? is Z) ; and if Eva F, G is H; 
But either C is not Z>, or G is not H\ 
.'. Either A is not B, or ^is not F. 

In the Dilemma there are two alternatives, called Horns of the 
Dilemma. If a person opposes the argument of a Dilemma, he 
decides which alternative he will oppose, or " chooses his horn;" 
for instance, in the example of the Simple Destructive Dilemma, 
the party addressed might reply, " I can be happy in officcvwith 
out the approval of the opposing party." If one can not disprove 
either alternative he is said to be "transfixed by either horih" 
He may, however, suggest another alternative showing that the 
alternatives of the dilemma are not exhaustive.^ In the above 
example, one might reply that he could be happy in the perform - 

' Dr. McCosh quotes apropos of this: " Triptolemus Yellowley 
thought there were two ways of draining Braebaster Loch, cue 
down the Linklater Glen, the other by the Scalmester Burn. But 
the Udaller saw the imperfection of his division, ' There is a third 
way; let each of us start an equal proportion of brandy, lime- 
juice and sugar into the loch, and let us assemble all the jolly 
Udallers of the country, and in twenty-four hours you shall see 
dry ground where the loch of Braebaster now is.' " 



Knowing {the Intellect). 147 

ance of public duty, without regard to approval. Fallacies are 
common in this form of reasoning, from the fact that a person 
may present in argument two alternatives which are favorable 
to himself. 

80. Material Fallacies. The fallacies wliich have 
been considered in previous sections are called Logi- 
cal or Formal Fallacies, because they violate valid forms 
of the syllogism, and the errors may be detected by 
application of the rules of the syllogism. There is 
another class of errors in reasoning called Material 
Fallacies, because the errors lie in the matter itself, 
and it requires some knowledge of the subjects to 
detect them. In classifying and discussing these fal- 
lacies, logicians since the time of Aristotle have been 
accustomed to follov^ his method. The more im^jor- 
ianfc ones will be presented brieiiy. 

1. Fallacia Accidentis (Fallacy of Accident) and its 
Converse. A curious example often used is this : 

What you bought yesterday you eat to-day ; 
You bought raw meat yesterday; 
.*. You eat raw meat to-day. 

The accident of rawness is not implied in the Major, 
but is stated by the Conclusion. Loyalty to rulers is a 
duty, but probably was not a duty toward Charles I. 
of England, owing to the peculiar character of his 
reign. Those who urged the general principle in his 
case reasoned fallaciously. In these instances a gen- 
eral principle is applied to a particular case tvithout con^ 
sideration of the peculiar conditions of the case. 

Conversely, we may fall into error by arguing from a 
special case to a general principle without due considera- 
tion of the peculiarities of the case. Failure in the 



148 Psychology. 



first attempt to perform a difficult task may not imply 
failure in all future attempts. That frienclsliip was 
betrayed in a particular instance should not lead one 
to doubt the value of all friendship. 

2. Fallacy, of Shifting Ground. In argument the 
practice of dodging from one standpoint to another in 
face of each unanswerable objection is common. By 
understanding the grounds clearly at first, this may 
be avoided. 

Under the above head may be placed the Fallacy 
of Many Questions. You might ask a physician, '' Is 
deceit wicked ?" and receive an affirmative rej)ly ; 
then resp)ond that his act, in deceiving a patient 
that hope might aid his recover}^, was wicked. At 
least two questions were contained in the one : " Are 
grosser forms of deception usuall}^ wrong?" and "Is 
deception ever allowable in a particular case?" 

3. Petitio Principii (Begging the Question, Keason- 
ing in a Circle). This fallacy consists in draiuing a 
conclusion and then using tlie conclusion to establish one of 
the premises. We cannot say, "People approve ni}" 
plan, therefore it is good," and then turn about and 
say, "My plan is good, therefore people should ap- 
prove it." 

A common method of " begging the question" is in 
the use of epithets which assume the point under dis- 
cussion. " Your conduct is unprofessional and there- 
fore blameworthy" would be an instance, if the dispute 
arose as to whether the conduct was unprofessional. 
Such fallacies are called Question-Begging Epithets. 

4. Ignoratio Elenchi (Irrelevant Conclusion). This 
fallacy consists in establishing a conclusion not in question 
in such a luay that it may be mistaken for a pertinent con- 



Knoioing {the Intellect). 149 

elusion. A story related of an Irisliman is apropos : 
being cliarged with tlieft on evidence of three wit- 
nesses, he proposed to call thirty witnesses who did 
not see him do it. To show that men succeed with- 
out an education does not argue that education is of 
no value. 

When the character of the man is used against 
the cause he advocates, the reasoning is called Argu- 
mentum ad Hominem ; this fallacy is a form of Irrele- 
vant Conclusion. That he who advocates temperance 
is a drunkard is no proof against the correctness 
of his arguments. An attorney made a humorous 
use of this fallacy when he passed a brief to the 
barrister with the remark, " No case ; abuse the plaint- 
iff's attorney." 

Argumentum ad Populum is a method of appealing to 
the prejudices and feelings of the people as a sub- 
stitute for argument. The expression. Vox populi, vox 
Dei, is many times used by orators when the people 
are wrong. 

5. Other Material Fallacies are given in la.rger 
works of Logic ; there is room to mention onh^ two or 
three of them here. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam is 
the fallacy of affirming a belief because no one can 
prove the contrary. Fallacy as to Burden of Proof is 
emplo3^ed in case a man asks you to prove he is not 
right, when it is his business to establish his prin- 
ciple. The Argument from Consequences is frequently 
fallacious, if a principle is involved. That a course 
seems expedient may be no reason for pursuing it, if it 
violates a principle of right. The pursuit of truth 
has often been opposed because a discovery might 
tend to overthrow some dogma. " But if a doctrine 



150 / Psychology. 



be true, and a deed be right, the consequences must 
be good whether we see it or not." ' 

EXERCISES IN DEDUCTIVE REASONING. 

1. Give an original or selected example of violation of each of 
the Kules I, III, IV, and VIII of the Syllogism. 

2. Supply the omitted propositions in the following enthy- 
memes: There was a dull sunset, and it will rain to-morrow; A 
body is lighter at the top of a mountain than at its foot because 
it is farther from the center of the earth; The man is an oppressor 
of the poor and should not be elected to office; Logic is a science, 
hence a valuable study; History is a useful study, for all knowl- 
edge is useful. 

3. Give an original example of each form of the Hypothetical 
Syllogism; also examples of Fallacy of Conditionals. 

4. Construct an example of the Disjunctive Syllogism; ex- 
amples of the simple forms of the Dilemma. 

5. Point out the kind of material fallacy lurking in each of 
these examples: 

This man is unreliable; hence the cause which he advocates is 
not good. 

I have been cheated in this business transaction, and I will 
never trust men again. 

You can not show the opinion to be false; hence it is to be 
accepted. 

To take away the property of another is a crime; hence the 
liberation of the American slaves was wrong. 

The constitution is sacred; hence this reform bill which violates 
the constitution should not pass. 

The question arising as to whether labor organizations are use- 
ful, one may argue that they have done harm and hence should 
be abolished. 

1 For a more extended consideration of Fallacies consult 
McCosh's Logic, Jevons' Primer of Logic and Jevons' larger work 
revised by Hill. 

Fallacies of Induction will be considered under the subject of 
Induction. 



Knoioing (the Intellect). 151 

Our party is the one to join because it advocates right princi- 
ples; these principles are right because they are advocated by 
our party. 

The advocacy of Emancipation vi^as unpopular and led to civil 
discord; therefore the movement was wrong. 

INDUCTIVE REASONING. 

81. Nature of Induction. We have been learning 
the principles of Deductive Reasoning, in which the 
conclusion is deduced from premises. In this method 
of reasoning the major premise is usually the state- 
ment of a general principle, and in the conclusion this 
principle is applied to a particular case falling under 
the principle. In the example — "All sciences are 
useful ; Logic is a science ; therefore Logic is useful " 
— the major premise is a general principle, the minor 
is a particular observation, and upon the correctness 
of the principle and the observation depends the 
truth of the conclusion. In the examples thus far 
used the truth of the general principle has been as- 
sumed ; we are now to learn how general principles 
are established. During the growth of learning, men 
have noticed that in the case of Physics, Astronom}^ 
etc., knowledge arranged and generalized, i.e. scientific 
knowledge, is more available than unclassified knowl- 
edge, and that the scientific study of Physics, Astron- 
omy, etc., is a valuable training for the mind ; hence 
wise men conclude that "All science is useful." An 
acquaintance with the definition of Science and a 
knowledge of the nature of Logic lead to the state- 
ment, " Logic is a science." The belief that " men are 
mortal," that " all metals are useful," arises from the 
experience and observation of mankind. The vast 



152 Psychology. 



number of general beliefs and truths which are the 
accumulated wisdom of ages, and which we take for 
granted, and employ in our deductive reasoning, has 
grown out of the experience and observation of men. 
Induction is the process by which, from observation of par- 
ticular facts, general principles or laws are established. ' 

The conclusions of inductive reasoning may be used as 
premises in deduction. 

In ancient times men guessed at many of their 
premises, and, although they understood Aristotle's 
method of Logic which is used to-day, their conclu- 
sions were often false because their premises were 
false. Aristotle thought it reasonable that large 
bodies should fall faster than small ones, and so 
stated. Some one in modern times tried an experi- 
ment by dropping stones of unequal size from the 
Tower of Pisa, and found that they fell at the same 
rate, and, from this experiment, discovered one of the 
laws of falling bodies. The dictum of Aristotle was 
guesswork ; the inference of the experimenter was a 
general principle based upon observation. In the 
thirteenth century, Eoger Bacon did much to show 
what could be accomplished in the discovery of truth 
by observing nature and its phenomena ; later Galileo 
employed the same method, and Francis Bacon wrote 
a work setting forth the principles of the Inductive 
System. Since the time of Lord Bacon, the Inductive 
Method has been generally employed in scientific in- 

^ Mill defines Induction thus: " Induction is that operation of 
the mind by which we infer that what we know to be true in a 
particular case or cases, will be true in all cases which resemble 
the former in certain assignable respects. . ■ . . It proceeds from 
the known to the uiiknown^^ 



Knowing ifJie Intellect). 153 

vestigation, and through its means progress in dis- 
covery has been marvelous. 

82. The Processes named "Perfect Induction," 
'* Mathematical Induction," and ''Colligation of 
Facts" as viewed by Mr. Mill.' Mr. Mill regards 
Induction as a process of inference, i.e. a proceeding 
from the known to the unknown, and, therefore,' would 
exclude certain processes named in this section, be- 
cause in them he regards the conclusion as no wider 
than the premises. Whether we agree or disagree 
with Mr. Mill, the processes are appropriately de- 
scribed in connection with Induction. 

1. As examples of "Perfect Induction" the follow- 
ing may be used : I observe a number of apples lying 
on the table ; I note that this apple, that apple, etc., 
throughout the entire number are red ; but this apple, 
that apple, etc., are all the apples on the table ; there- 
fore all the apples on the table are red. Thinking of 
A, B, C, etc., the pupils of a certain class, I remember 
that each is of studious habits ; but A, B, C, etc., con- 
stitute the whole class ; hence I pronounce the whole 
class studious. The conclusion in these examples is 
a mere summary^ abbreviated expression or comprehensive 
statement, not an inference from known things to un- 
known ; hence Mr. Mill's definition excludes them from 
inductive processes. 

2. I prove in case of a particular polygon that the 
sum of its interior angles, together with four right 
angles, is equal to twice as many right angles as the 
figure has sides — and conclude that the law holds 
good of all polygons. In calculating the terms of a 

' Miirs Logic, Bk. IIT, Chap. 11. 



154 • Psychology. 



matliematical series, wlien tlie law of tlie series is dis- 
covered, we confidently apply the law to any remote 
term of tlie series. Tliese are cases of ''Mathematical 
Induction," but by some excluded from Induction 
proper, because, from the nature of mathematical de- 
monstration, there is an absolute certainty that the 
case in hand is typical of the class, and no step in 
advance is made when the principle proven in the 
particular instance is affirmed of all possible instances 
of the same kind. 

3. A person may wish to know the shape of a large 
cathedral, and find it necessary to- walk around it, 
viewing its structure point by point ; he then sums up 
his observations by the statement that the building 
is cruciform. Mr. Mill would regard this as a " de- 
scriptive operation" in which several facts are 
summed up in a single statement. To this process is 
applied the term "Colligation of Facts." Mr. Mill 
thinks that the process was the same when Kepler, 
by successive observations of the position of Mars in 
its orbit, determined the kind of curve of the orbit 
and described it as elliptical ; although the inference 
that the orbits of the other planets not observed were 
elliptical was a true induction. 

83. Logical Induction. The magnets which we have 
observed attract iron ; we believe this to be true of all 
magnets. In our experience and the experience of 
men in the past, the sun rises at regular intervals ; 
we believe it will do so in the future. This and that 
falling body observed fall a certain distance the first 
second, and in a certain increasing ratio in subsequent 
seconds, and we establish laws for these observed in- 
stances ; we believe these laws hold good for all falling 



Knowing {the Intellect). 155 

bodies. We learn by experiment that water, alcohol, 
etc., are elastic, also that air, carbonic acid, etc., are 
elastic ; we believe that all fluids are elastic. These 
conclusions are drawn from observation and experi- 
ment, but what is the ground of belief that what is 
true of some things observed is also true of other 
things not observed ? Belief in the uniformity of the 
laws of nature is the ground upon which we argue from the 
known to the unknown. We may express the first ex- 
ample formally : 

Whatever essential thing is true of the magnets I have ob- 
served is true of all magnets; 
The magnets observed attract iron; 
. •. All maguets attract iron. 

In the first premise faith in the uniformity of nature 
is implied. 

It is easy to see that the value of our conclusion will 
depend very much upon the extent and accuracy of our ob- 
servation, and that in Logical Induction there can be no 
absolute certainty. An inhabitant of the torrid zone 
might say, " Water so far as I have seen exists as 
liquid or vapor, hence water is never solid." His 
false conclusion is due to his lack of experience. 
People for a long time firmly believed that all swans 
were white until the Australian black swan was dis- 
covered. The common errors and superstitious be- 
liefs of men are due to hasty inaccurate generaliza- 
tions. Because in two or three instances one happens 
to meet with some accident on Friday, he may con- 
clude that Friday is an unlucky day. 

In classification, we discover common characteristics 
of several things and form a group of all things pos- 
sessing these characteristics. In Logical Induction, we 



156 Psychology. 



infer that what is true of some things observed is true of 
the whole class to which those things belong. 

84. Analogy. Examples of reasoning by analogy 
are the following : The ripples npon the sands of the 
sea-sliore are caused by the waves ; probably the rip- 
ples in the ancient sandstones were caused by waves. 
Mars resembles the earth in possessing bodies of 
water, clouds, snow-covered polar regions, etc. ; it 
may resemble it in being inhabited. Lightning resem- 
bles electricity in its report, zigzag course, etc. ; prob- 
ably it resembles it in its essence and is electricity. 
Here the formations and the appearance of the ore are 
similar to those in Leadville ; hence probably here are 
valuable mines. We may infer from these typical ex- 
amples that the formula for Analogical Eeasoning 
may be thus expressed : " Two things resemble each other 
in one or more respects ; a certain proposition is true of 
one, therefore it is true of the other. ^ 

In reasoning by analogy we can affirm only some degree 
of probability, and the degree will depend upon the 
number of points of similarity and the circumstances 
of the case.^ As a means of forming hypotheses 
Analogy is very important.^ 

^ The above formula for Analogy is given by Mr. Mill. Anal- 
ogy means strictly a resemblance of relations. The tin of a tish 
and the wing of a bird are analogues, because in locomotion the tin 
bears the same relation to the water that the wing bears to the air. 

"^ For example, the quality a, or the qualities a, 6, c, are found 
in each of two objects; therefore probably the quality d found 
associated with a or with a, 6, c in the one will also be in the 
other. This analogy passes at once into induction, so soon as we 
infer that the quality d will be found in all the members of the 
class containing a, 6, and c. 

' It is the uniform method of forming hypotheses to be tested 



K nolo In g {the Intellect). 157 



85. Complete Logical Indtjotion. In the processes 
of true induction tlius far described there is only a 
degree of probability in the inference. These forms 
of induction are only the first stages of a complete in- 
duction. Let us take a well-known example of dis- 
covery and trace the successive steps until the Law 
was thoroughly established. Franklin, like other 
people of his day, had a natural curiosity to know the 
nature of lightning. (1) He carefully observed the 
phenomena connected with it, the zigzag course, the 
report accompanying, etc. (2) He was well ac- 
quainted with all the phenomena of frictional elec- 
tricity, and noted a similarity between the phenomena 
observed and some of those of electricity ; hence by 
analogy he reasoned that the two were similar in 
other respects, namel}', in their essence, and assumed 
the hypothesis that lightning was electricity. (3) He 
next virtually proceeded with a process of deductive 
reasoning, making his hypothesis one of the premises 
of his syllogism, thus : 

Electricity will follow conductors, give sparks, charge a leyden 

jar, etc. ; 
Lightning is electricity; 
.-. Lightning will follow conductors, give, sparks, charge a leyden 

jar, etc. 

(4) He next proceeded to verify by experiment this 
conclusion of his deduction, and, flying his kite to a 
passing cloud, he found that the force with which the 
cloud was charged followed the moistened string, gave 
sparks from the key attached, and charged a leyden 

and verified, or refuted by farther experience. Every scientific 
theory has its beginning in an analogy. 



158 Psychology. 



jar. Thus the hypothesis became established as a 
truth. 

The process was the same in Newtou's discovery of 
the law of gravitation. (1) Observation of bodies fall- 
ing to the earth ; (2) proceeding by induction to the hy- 
pothesis that all bodies tend to fall toward the earth ; 
(3) the deduction that the moon being a body must 
fall toward the earth ; (4) the verification of this con- 
clusion by a mathematical demonstration, that on his 
hypothesis the moon should revolve about the earth 
as it does„ 

Thus his hypothesis became a Law. The processes 
of a complete induction are: (1) Observation or Experi- 
ment, (2) Hypothesis^ (3) Deduction, (4) Verification. 

In many instances of discovery, many a hypothesis 
has been assumed and rejected until at last the right 
one was discovered, which stood the test when made 
the premise of a syllogism, and applied to explain all 
the observed facts. 

86. Cause. Canons of Induction.' of the many antece- 
dents that may go before an effect, it is necessary to be able to 
detect the antecedent necessary to the effect, that is, the Cause. 
An experimenter may wish to illustrate to a class, by using a ball 
and ring, the expansion of solids by heat. As antecedents to the 
effect he places the stand and ring on the table, he attaches the 
iron ball to a chain, and lights the lamp. None of these antece- 
dent acts will expand the solid. When the heat is applied to the 
ball it expands, and we readily conclude that heat is the neces- 
sary antecedent or the cause of the expansion, while the others 
are merely incidental preparations. When a fire is lighted in a 
grate, the cause of the fire is not only the application of a match, 
but the presence of the wood and an adequate supply of oxygen, 
for without any one of these three antecedents the combustion 

I On this subject read MilFs Logic, Bk. Ill, Chaps. VIII and IX. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 159 

would not follow. Whatever antecedents are always fol- 
lowed by an event— tlie event not occurring in absence of 
these antecedents — constitute the cause of the event. 

In order to facilitate the drawing of inferences as to causes of 
events certain methods of procedure have been marked out, and 
the laws of the methods, called Canons of Induction, have been 
stated. These methods are known respectively as Method of 
Agraement, Method of Difference^ Joint Method of Agreement 
and Difference, Methodof Residues, Method of Concomitant Va- 
riations. It should be noted that the Canons when used in 
reasoning are major premises of deductive syllogisms. 

1. Method of Agreement. 

CANON. In two or more instances when a phenomenon oc- 
curs, that antecedent which alone is common to them all is 
the cause of the phenomenon. 

Gunpowder explodes when placed in a keg and a lighted fuse 
is applied; It explodes when placed in a gun-barrel, and percus- 
sion is applied to a cap placed in connection with the powder; it 
explodes when placed under water in a tube, and a current of 
electricity is passed through it on a poor conductor. Here the 
conditions vary, and the only circumstance common to the three 
instances is the application of heat by some means ; we conclude 
that heat is the cause of the explosion. 

2. Method of Difference. 

CANON. " If an instance in which the phenomenon under 
investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, 
'lave every circumstance in common, save one, that one occur- 
. ing only in the former ; the circumstance in which alone the 
two instances differ is the effect, or the cause, or an indis- 
pensable part of the cause, of the phenomenon. " 

Let the lower part of a barometer tube communicate with a re- 
ceiver ; when the air is exhausted the mercury falls, when the 
air is readmitted the mercury rises. Air is present when the 
mercury is sustained in the tube ; all other circumstances re- 
maining the same, air is absent when the mercury is not sus- 
tained ; hence the pressure of the air sustains the mercury. 

3. Joint Method of Agreement and Difference. 
CANON. Whatever antecedent is alone common to a series 

of instances in which a phenomenon occurs— the phenomenon 



160 Psychology. 



not occurring in a series ot instances which have nothing in 
common but the omission of this antecedent — is the cause of 
the phenomenon. 

Dew gathers readily on grass, wool, cotton, etc.; with refer- 
ence to the investigation these things have nothing in common 
but their high radiating power. Dew gathers slowly on j^olished 
metals, stones, earth, etc. ; these things have nothing in common 
but the absence of a high radiating power. I conclude that 
the power to radiate heat rapidly is a favorable condition for 
the deposition of dew. 

4. Method of Residues. 

CANON. If part of a phenomenon may be referred to known 
causes, the remaining part of the phenomenon may be re- 
ferred to the remaining antecedents. 

An example is quoted by Mr. Mill, the substance of which is 
here stated. By careful computation the velocity of sound in 
air, as depending upon the elasticity and density of the medium, 
had been made, but was found not quite to tally with facts; 
there was a residual velocity to be accounted for. The only re- 
sidual circumstance was the heat produced by the condensation 
of air in the transmission of sound-waves. By further computa- 
tion the increased elasticity of air by condensation accounted for 
the residual velocity. 

5. Method of Concomitant Variations. 

CANON. If a phenomenon varies in a particular way, 
while an antecedent varies in any given way, the antecedent 
is the cause of the phenomenon. 

The farther a core of iron rods is thrust within a primary coil, 
the more intense the current of electricity upon an adjacent 
secondary coil. The proximity of the bundle of iron rods is the 
cause of the increased intensity. 

87. Fallacies of Induction' (91). 

1. Fallacies of Observation. These fallacies are 
classed by Mr. Mill as those of Non-Observation and 
those of Mal-Observation. Fallacies of Non-Observation 

' Bead INIiirs Logic, Bk. V, Chaps. IV and V. 



I 



Knowing (the Intellect). 161 

arise in the following cases : (1) When one-sided in- 
stances only are likely to be remembered, as re- 
markable coincidences between dreams and events, 
the cases when there is no coincidence receiving com- 
paratively little attention ; (2) "When a preconceived 
opinion exists, as in case of the old belief that a large 
stone would fall faster than a small one ; (3) When the 
essential circumstance is not given due importance. 
As an example of the last I quote : " The celebrated 
John Wesley, while he commemorates the triumph of 
sulphur and supplication over his bodily infirmity, 
forgets to appreciate the resuscitating influence of four 
months' repose from his apostolic labors ; and such is 
the disposition of the human mind to place confidence 
in the operation of mysterious agents, that we find him 
more disposed to attribute his cure to a brown-paper 
plaster of egg and brimstone than to Dr. Fothergill's 
salutary prescription of country air, rest, asses' milk, 
and horse exercise." 

Fallacies of Mal-Observation arise when a person re- 
gards as true what he in reality only incorrectly infers. 
Here belong many idle reports based upon imper- 
fect observation. A person falls into this error when 
in the night he mistakes a garment gently swaying in 
the wind for a moving ghost. People at the time the 
Copernican theory of the solar system was advanced 
said they knew the theory was not true, for they could 
see the sun rise and set. 

2. Fallacies of Generalization. Amongst these fal- 
lacies may be mentioned first that of Simple Enumera- 
tion. This error consists in inferring that what has 
always been true so far as observed, is true generally 
and always will be true. Example : In the history 



162 PsycTiology. 



of nations all republics liave shortly perisliecl ; lience 
no republic will be permanent. 

Another common fallacy is called Post Hoc, ergo 
propter Hoc. This error consists in regarding as rela- 
tion of cause and effect that which is only a sequence. 
Examples : As fast as the per cent, of immigration to 
the United States has increased, the prosperit}^ of the 
country has increased ; hence the prosperity is due to 
immigration. A remarkable auroral display was fol- 
lowed by a great war ; hence the aurora was the " fore- 
runner" of the war. 

The last fallacy which we shall mention is that of 
False Analogy. This arises " when resemblance in one 
point is inferred from resemblance in another point, 
though there is not only no evidence to connect the 
two circumstances by way of causation, but the evi- 
dence tends positively to disconnect them." Example : 
A nation like a human being has its youth and matu- 
rity, therefore it must have its decline and death. 

EXERCISES IN INDUCTIVE REASOFilNO. 

1. Give an example of Logical Induction; of reasoning by 
Analogy; of Complete Logical Induction. 

2. What is the principle on which we rely in inferring from the 
known to the unknown ? 

3. What is the difference between Induction and Analogy ? 

4. Give an illustration of the uses of analogy. 

5. When only may a hypothesis be accepted as a law ? 

6. What primary principle or fact makes valid scientific induc- 
tions possible ? (See Porter, §§ 486, 487, 488, 496, 497.) 

7. What is the use of the Canons ? 

8. Illustrate the application of each of the Canons of Induction. 

9. Point out the fallacy in each of these examples: When in 
Colorado I encountered a dust storm; hence i^ is a very disagree- 
able region. A period of general depression in business has fol- 



Knowing {tlie Intellect). 168 

lowed the advent of the present administration ; hence it is due 
to the administration. A ruler is servant of the people ; hence 
he should obey the wishes of the people. At a certain seance a 
ghostl}^ figure appeared in full view; hence we must believe in 
the supernatural. The Oracle at Delphi proclaims this; hence 
the event will occur as predicted. 



APPLICATIONS. 

88. The Training of Mental Faculty in the Schools ' 

(58, 63, 71). Now tliat we have completed our view of 
the Intellect, let us consider briefly the work of the 
schools in training mental faculty. 

In the Primary- SCHOOL Period, Perception is trained 
by handling and observing objects ; Memory inciden- 
tally by all the work of the grade, and in special ways, 
as memorizing gems of literature ; Imagination by tales 
and descriptions, and such designs and constructions 
as are employed in the kindergarten ; the Thinking 
Faculty by use of simple judgments and reasons. 
Proper Emotion is fostered in many ways adapted to 
the disposition and needs of the child ; the Will is 
strengthened by the restraints and demands of the 
school-room. The mind gains control of the body 
through such exercises as reading, speaking, singing, 
writing, calisthenics, and the sports of the play- 
ground. 

In the Grammar-school Period most of this work 
is continued, and in addition Memory and Imagination 



» Read Tate, Part I, Chap. Ill, pp. 60-81; Bain's Ed., Chap. 
VI; White's Pedagogy, pp. 84-93, 103, 109. On adaptation of 
subject and method to the stage of development read Eosen- 
krauz, § 105. 



164 Psychology. 



are exercised in Geography and History ; the Beason 
is trained by elementary science, grammar, and the 
processes of arithmetic. 

During the High-school Period Perception is used 
in drawing and in studying specimens and observing 
experiments. Memory is exercised in connection with 
all the work ; the absolute memory, in retentive acquisi- 
tion of selections in literature, theorems in Geometry, 
and the principles of science ; the philosophical mem- 
ory, in all retention of knowledge in logical relations. 
The Imagination is exercised in the study of literature 
and in many other ways. The Inductive Beason is 
trained by inductions in science and history ; the De- 
ductive Beason by mathematics. The finer Emotions 
are developed in the study of literature, and the 
growth of the feelings and desires in general naturally 
follows the accumulation of knowledge. The Will is 
trained in various ways to choose in view of worthy 
motives, and to engage in vigorous and long-continued 
effort. The mind gains control of the body through 
drawing, gymnastics, and military drill. 

From our study thus far we may conclude that the 
human mind is a very complex thing ; that the growth 
of all the faculties begins almost with the first experi- 
ence of the child ; that all the faculties are developed 
together, interlinking with each other, and aiding each 
other ; that the period at which a considerable degree 
of development is reached and successful cultivation 
may begin is not the same for all the powers, but oc- 
curs in the sequence of Perception, Bepresentation, Con- 
ception, Judgment, and Beason ; that the development 
of the Intellectual Faculties should be towards the 
ideal attainment of clearness and vigor of Beason ; that 



Knowing {the 'Intellect). 165 

so far as practicable the development of tlie mental 
powers sliould be symmetrical. 

89. Some Points in Cultivating the Power of 
Thought ' (58, 63, 71). 

1. Proceed from the Particular to the General. The 
steps are : (1) Selection of Particulars ; (2) Arranging 
so as to bring out the agreements ; (3) Naming and 
defining. For instance, if you wish to teach the idea 
of a triangle, (1) draw several kinds of triangles, vary- 
ing in size, on paper ; (2) by arranging in a row, super- 
position, etc., bring out the idea of three-sidedness as 
common to all the figures ; (3) name, and if possible 
get from the child a definition of this class of figures. 
In like manner typical processes precede the forma- 
tion of rules in arithmetic, and an acquaintance with 
the familiar objects of natural scenery precedes the 
more general information of physical geography. 

2. Proceed from the Simple to the Complex. The 
practice of teaching the elements of the letters in 
writing before complete letters or words are formed 
illustrates the principle. Frequently, in drawing, the 
formation of lin©s, angles, etc., is practiced before 
more complicated figures are attempted. In Geom- 
etry an acquaintance with straight lines and angles 
would precede their use in figures. Plane figures and 
simple constructions would precede the stud}^ of solids 
and complicated demonstrations.' 

3. Teach the pupil to think and do for himself. The 

' See^Speiicer's Ed., pp. 120, 121; Bain's Ed., Chap. VII; Rous- 
seau's Emile, pp. 106, 124, 130, 149. See Maxims of elementary 
teaching, White's Pedagogy, p. 105. Refer to the " Principles" 
of Comenius beginning p. 79. 

' Read Spencer's Ed., pp. 147-153. 



166 PsycJioiogy. 



spirit of this principle may be shown by some of the 
examples employed by Eousseaa. " In drawing a cir- 
cle, for instance, I will not use a compass, but a point 
at the end of a cord which turns on a pivot. After- 
ward when I want to compare the radii of a semi- 
circle, Emile will laugh at me and tell me that the 
same cord held with the same tension cannot describe 
unequal distances." Again lie forms an angle of sixty 
degrees, describes from the apex an entire circle and 
finds that the intercepted arc is one sixth of the whole 
circumference. He then describes a larger and again 
larger circle from the same apex until Emile, " vexed 
at his stupidity," informs him that the size of the cir- 
cle does not affect the proportion of the arc. Eous- 
seau would not begin instruction in geography with a 
globe, but causes his pupil carefully to observe a sun- 
set, and the next morning the sunrise, dropping inci- 
dentally the remark, "I think the sun set over there, 
and now it has risen over here." If, after a few days, 
his pupil has not thought out what is thus suggested, 
in answer to the pupil's question he points out how 
the sun goes from the rising to the setting, and leaves 
the inference to the puj)il. As a last example from 
Eousseau's very suggestive work may be given the 
experiment with a straight stick thrust into water. 
The pupil is caused to view the stick from different 
points and in different positions as it is thrust into 
the water or removed ; to pass his hand along it, etc. ; 
he thus has a lesson concerning hasty inferences from 
false appearances. The purpose of education is not 
merely knowledge, but the power to know. "Cram- 
ming" and "pouring in" processes do not properly 
train faculty ; education is a growth and development. 



Knowing {the Intellect). 167 

The powers are strengthened by exercise ; hence the 
pupil should be stimulated to think and do for 
himself. 

4. Simple Processes of Inference. Some examples 
may be given of simple deduction and induction, such 
as may be employed incidentally during earlier periods 
of education.' Only that which is lighter than air 
rises in air ; then smoke is lighter than air. I can lift 
a stone in water which I cannot lift in the air ; hence 
the stone is lighter in water, the water helps lift the 
stone. Flesh-eating animals are carnivorous ; then the 
cat is carnivorous. Good conductors of heat in the 
winter are cold to the touch ; then the metal door- 
knob is a good conductor. It never rains unless there 
are clouds in the sky ; then the clouds cause rain. 
The examples thus far are Deductive. Some examples 
of Induction follow. The air in this inverted tube ex- 
pands when heated, as shown by the bubbles driven 
out through the water ; water in a full kettle runs 
over when heated ; this wire grows longer by heating ; 
hence heat expands bodies. If I tie a piece of rubber 
over the mouth of a tumbler and invert the tumbler 
in water, the rubber is pressed upward ; if I place the 
mouth sidewise in the Avater the rubber is pressed in- 
ward sidewise ; if I place the tumbler upright under 
the water, the rubber is pressed downward : hence 
water presses in every direction. If similar experi- 
ments are employed for air a broader generalization 
may be reached, namely, that all fluids press equally 
in every direction. 

5. Analysis and Synthesis. Analysis proceeds from 



For numerous examples, see Tate, pp. 216-224. 



168 Psychology. 



a wliole to its elements, syntliesis proceeds from ele- 
ments to a whole. These processes are constantly 
associated in instruction, but often tlie distinction is 
not fully understood. Examples of eacli method 
follow : 

Examples of Analysis. Examples of Syntliesis. 

Deductive Eeasoniiig. Inductive Eeasoning. 

Application of principles. Establishing principles. 

Teaching words, then letters. Teaching letters, then words. 
Applying rules to solution of Making rules from typical ex- 
problems, amples. 
Analyzing sentences. Constructing sentences. 
Teaching the globe or map. Beginning with familiar scenery. 

Reading. 

Description. 

Learning history. 

There is no law for tlie use of analysis and synthesis ; 
one process supplements the other. AVhich shall pre- 
cede must be determined for the case in hand. 

90. Training in the Use of Words (62). As the 
field of knowledge and hence the vocabulary enlarges, 
correct definitions in the child's own words, with illus- 
trations, must be demanded constantly. Throughout 
the course of instruction nothing is more important 
than the formation of correct Concepts. A large 
vocabulary of words well defined, which means a large 
store of general notions in the mind, must be gained. 
In every study, whether Physics, Mathematics, or the 
writings of standard authors, the aim should be to 
gain clear notions. 

The Greeks and Latins were highly cultivated peo- 
ples, and had elaborate languages in which they em- 
balmed their concepts. A careful study of these 



Knoioing {the Intellect). 169 

tongues enriclies our geueral and scientific vocabu- 
lary. 

91. Avoiding t«he Common Sources of Error in Rea- 
soning (62, 87). Locke's views as to the causes of 
defective reasoning may be summed up thus : (1) Dis- 
position to accept common beliefs and statements 
without troubling to examine for one's self ; (2) Per- 
mitting passion and prejudice to bias our views in- 
stead of examining evidence judicially; (3) Failure to 
examine all the conditions that may affect the result. 
The means of correcting these faults are obvious 
enough. (1) We should examine freely for ourselves, 
with both modesty and independence, whatever beliefs 
claim our acceptance. (2) We should avoid the most 
common and serious fault of rejecting information 
when it is Avithin our reach, because it would not suit 
our inclinations or apparent interests to change our 
views. (3) A knowledge of the principles of Logic 
and an acquaintance with common fallacies should be 
gained, as thus the power and habit of accurate rea- 
soning may be strengthened. The study of Mathe- 
matics and Science largely increases the logical power. 

EXAOTPI.ES. 

1. Give an example of each of the processes of thinking. 

2. What is the difference between Conception, Judgment, and 
Reasoning ? _ 

3. Why are Thinking processes called elahorative ? 

4. Give an original example of forming a Concept. 

5. What is the difference between Conception and Imagination ? 

6. Distinguish Classification from Conception; Abstraction 
from Conception. 

7. Give examples of Logical Division, using Buildings, ScJiools. 

8. Define species and genus. 



170 Psychology. 



9. Can we think without language ? 

10. Are the names first used by children applied to individuals, 
or to concepts ? 

11. Give examples of the abuse of words. 

12. What is "implicit " Judgment; " implicit " Keasoning ? 

13. What may be said of the habit of permitting prejudice to 
influence belief ? 

14. Are axioms necessary truths ? 

15. Give an original example showing the difference between 
Deduction and Induction. 

16. Point out the difference between Presentative Knowledge, 
Representative Knowledge, and Thought Knowledge. 

17. Estimate the average development of mental faculty at the 
time the child enters school. 

18. What is meant by symmetrical development? 

19. Should we always proceed from the particular to the gener- 
al and from the simple to the complex ? 

20. Should the pupil ever be told what he can discover for 
himself ? 

21. Give some practical illustrations of waj^s in which the 
judgment of a child may be corrected, or his attention called to 
causes of common phenomena. 

22. Distinguish Analysis from Synthesis in Arithmetic. 

23. Can all the principles of studies in a school course be taught 
inductively ? 



FEELING. 

Introduction. 

92. Nature of Feeling. We are conscious of agi- 
tations and impulses of the mind wliicli are neither 
acts of Knowing nor acts of Will ; these are Feelings. 
Feeling is any state or act of the mind which can not be re- 
garded as Knowing or Willing.' 

I feel pain from a wound in my finger ; I feel pain 
at the death of a friend. The origin of the former is 
referred to the body ; the latter arises in the mind on 
the receipt of sad news, and can in no way be referred 
to the body. Feelings may be classed as Physical Feel- 
ings, called Sensations, and Psychical Feelings, called 
Emotions. 

You feel pain from a burn, sorrow for a wrong, an 
uneasy desire for improvement. On the other hand, 
you ma}'^ feel the exhilaration of health, joy at unex- 
pected good fortune, pleasure in a desire gratified. 
Feelings may be classed as Agreeable or Disagreeable. 

' "There are three ultimate modes of mind— FeeHng, Yohtion 
and Intellect. Volition is action under feeling; its differentia, 
therefore, is active energy for an end, which is a distinctive and 
well-defined property. Intellect has three constituents, — dis- 
crimination, similarity, retentiveness, — all clearly definable. 
The precision attaching to Volition and to Intellect gives a precise 
negative definition to Feeling. Thus any mental state not being 
Action for an End, and not regarded as Discrimination, Agree- 
ment, or Ketentiveness must be viewed as Feeling."— Bain on 
the Emotions. 

171 



17^ Psychology. 



Feeling may be defined as any mental state of pleasure 
or pain. 

93. Relation to Knowledge. While, as learned 
under Perception, the Sensations precede knowledge, 
the higher feelings, namely the Emotions, follow onr 
knowledge of things.' Light-waves from its plumage 
strike the eye and produce sensation in my mind, the 
music of its song reaches the ear, before I know that a 
bird perches on a branch of the neighboring tree. 
News of impending danger is followed by a feeling of 
consternation ; news of victory is followed by shouts 
of joy. The pleasures of perception, memory, imagi- 
nation, etc., arise in view of acts of knowledge. While 
the emotions follow, they are immediate, indeed are 
inseparable, accompaniments of every Intellectual act.'* 
The Emotions constitute a world of inner experience, 
aw^akened by our knowledge of the outer w^orld, which 
make up the happiness or misery of man. 

94. Relation of Feeling to Activity' (120). Ac- 
cording to Hamilton's " Theory of Pleasure and Pain," 
pleasure springs from the natural exertion of our 
powers, and pain from their overstrained or repressed 
action.* 

' Hamilton, Lect. XLI, p. 567. 

^ " All feeling is the state in which we are conscious of some of 
the energies or processes of life; as these energies or processes 
differ, so will the correlative feelings. In a word, there will be 
as many different Feelings as there are distinct modes of mental 
Activity. . . . The feelings are not primitive and independent 
states, but merely states which accompany the exertion of our 
faculties."— Hamilton, Lect. XLV. 

" Hamilton, Lect. XLII, pp. 575-577. 

^ " We feel positive pleasure, in proportion as our powers are 
exercised, but not over-exercised; .we feel positive pain in pro- 



Feeling. 173 



We know tliat we find pleasure in muscular exer- 
tion ; " a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold 
the sun ;" there is j)leasure in the exercise of memory, 
imagination and reason. Pleasure arises from the 
exercise of all our powers and faculties. On the other 
hand, an intense light, long-continued physical labor, 
or the excessiye use of any mental faculty gives pain ; 
physical or mental inactivity creates an uncomfortable 
restlessness. 

" Absence of occupation is not rest; 
A mind quite vacant is a mind distressed." 

We now obtain a practical view of labor of all kinds, 
and especially of education. The healthy exercise of 
each of our powers is pleasurable. Pleasure in action 
incites the will ; this is a leading motive for all activ- 
ity. Men exert themselves not only to gain happiness, 
but to avoid pain, or to remove ennui. 

95. Laws of Intensity' (120). Hamilton reduces the 
causes which modify the intensity of pleasure or pain 
to four: " An object rouses the activity of our powers, (1) 
In proportion as it is New or Unexpected ; (2) In propor- 
tion as it stands in a relation of Contrast ; (3) In proportion 
as it stands in a relation of Harmony ; and (4) In propor- 
tion as it is Associated with more, or more interesting, 
objects." 

portion as tliey are compelled either not to operate, or to operate 
too much. All pleasure, thus, arises from the free play of our 
faculties and capacities; all pain from their compulsory repres- 
sion or compulsory activity." — Hamilton, Lect. XLIV, p. 603. 

This theory may not apply to all cases, but it is an exceedingly 
important view. 

^ Hamilton, Lect. XLIV, p. 608. 



174 Psychology. 



With reference to the first principle, change in kind 
and degree of activity gives pleasure. You are tired 
of study, you enjoy exercise ; you are tired of exercise 
and enjoy a return to books. Painful stimulation, 
prolonged, loses its intensity ; thus punishment as a 
means of discipline, too often repeated, loses much of 
its force ; our sensibility becomes dull after a long 
period of bodily or mental suffering. According to 
the same principle satiety follows excess of enjoyment. 

Secondly, by contrasting our present condition with 
some previous condition of pain or with the unfortu- 
nate condition of others our pleasure is heightened. 
The merchant enjoys more the satisfaction of his suc- 
cess as he recounts his early struggle with fortune. 
After enjoying a period of prosperity, people feel 
more keenly the condition of poverty. 

Thirdly, whatever is in keeping with present cir- 
cumstances or trains of thought, whatever is in good 
taste, is a source of pleasure. On an occasion of 
festivity a sermon would grate harshly on the feelings, 
as would a flash of wit during some sacred ceremony. 
If two opposing emotions arise there is a conflict ; 
when emotions conspire together each strengthens the 
other. 

As to the fourth principle, an object in itself pleas- 
ing may bring with it a train of painful associations, 
while an object of comparative indifference through 
its associations may become a source of positive pleas- 
ure. A beautiful memento reminds you of lost friend- 
ship. You are about to throw away some object as 
worthless when you recognize it as a toy of your 
childhood, and you cherish it with a new feeling of 
regard. 



Fueling. 175 



96. Expression.' There is an inherited tendency to 
accompany emotion with facial expression and atti- 
tudes and gestures of the body. This outward ex- 
pression is a means of studying the feelings of others, 
and upon it is based largely the growth of sympathy. 
Much of the effect of elocution, of art and of stage 
acting depends upon an intimate acquaintance with 
the physical expressions of emotion. 

^ Read McCosh, The Motive Powers, Bk. I, Chap. IV, p. 78 
et seq. 



Sensations. 



97. Classification of Sensations. Sensations are of 
many kinds. There are sensations not proceeding 
from any one of the " five senses ;" these are called 
General. The sensations proceeding from the five 
sense-organs are called -Special. Without continuing 
the analysis we may tabulate the classes of sensations 
given under Perception. The Instincts and Appetites, 
though general sensations, may form distinct classes. 



CO 

PI 

•l-H 





" Instincts 


to care for young 
" seek food, etc. 
' for sleep 




Appetites ^ 


" exercise 
" rest 
" food 
_ " drink 


id 


General , 

Sensations ' 


Muscular j opl^Jury 
Sensations ] . ^^^^^^^^ 

Nervous i ^F |^Ssfior 
Sensations \ . ^e'^^Satm-e 


O} 




Vital ?f digestion 
viuii , ^i circulation 
Sensations \ " respiration 




Special 
Sensations 


of Touch (including the " Muscular Sense") 
" Sight 
" Hearing 
" Taste 




^ 


" Smell 


Em 


otions 





Instincts are blind impulses to action ; they are aimed 
to meet the needs of the individual. As we rise in 
the scale of being, intelligence increases, instinct de- 
creases. Appetites are periodic cravings to meet 
physical wants. The bee stores up his honey by in- 
stinct, appetite incites him to eat it. Muscular Sensa- 

176 



Feeling. 177 



tions arise from affections of the muscles; Neri^us 
Sensations spring from conditions of tlie nerves ; 
Vital Sensations report the condition of the vital 
organs. 

98. Importance of the Sensations (121). The Natural 
Appetites seek the rest and repair of the body. The 
physical nature reports its needs to the mind, — calls for 
food, for pure air, for rest. The responsibility is thus 
taken from the mind which might harmfully neglect 
bodily needs. Most human beings possess Acquired 
Appetites, such as those for opium, tobacco, coffee, and 
alcohol. These appetites are morbid and are likely 
to prove dangerous, because they grow in intensity 
and may enslave the will of the individual. There is 
nothing more pitiable than an intelligent human being 
controlled by the morbid appetites of his animal 
nature, and unable to enjoy the freedom of his high 
intellectual and moral powers. 

The pleasure in Muscular Action is an incentive to 
labor; pain follows an excess of physical exercise. 
After a period of exertion there is pleasure in repose. 
Bodily discomfort from cold, heat or unnatural posi- 
tions may seriously disturb mental activity. Nervous 
people are incapable of full enjoyment and usefulness ; 
the exhilaration of health contributes to courage and 
success. 

The Vital Organs, when acting normally, produce 
little feeling of pleasure or pain. When disturbed by 
disease their action may become painfuL Indigestion 
is painful and may seriously affect the happiness and 
success of its victim. 

The Special Sensations give us knowledge of objects, 
and the mind enjoys this knowledge ; but there is a 



178 Psychology. 



pure " sensuous" ' eujoymeut furuislied by each of the 
five senses. Beautiful colors please the eye, musical 
sounds soothe the ear, sweet perfumes are grateful to 
the nostrils, velvet is agreeable to the touch. These 
sensuous elements, as we shall see, are combined with 
our intellectual enjoyment of Beauty. 

The Physical Feelings as a whole are intimately 
connected with problems of education. Sensations are 
prominent in the child's mind; he desires physical 
comfort; hence he must at times be controlled by 
rewards and punishments that affect the body. As 
the child grows he must be taught to control the bod , 
to sit quietly, to turn his mind from physical condi- 
tions and attend to study. As soon as possible, 
rewards and punishment should appeal to his higher, 
his spiritual nature. No person can attain the highest 
mental growth, if he is eternally conscious of his body. 
A resolute will may thrust the physical feelings into 
the sub-conscious region. The history of martyrs 
shows that ecstatic joy may accompany excruciating 
torture. 

^ " Lotze distinguished the feeUngs, as mental conditions of 
pain or pleasure, from sensations as indifferent elements of our 
percepts of things. Yet, in fact, sensations are always, or usu- 
ally, colored with feeling; and analysis is therefore obliged here 
to distinguish in theory what coexists in fact. Feelings are of 
two kinds: ' Sensuous,' as coming from bodily impressions; and 
'Intellectual,' as flowing from the relations of ideas."— Ladd, 
p. 500. 



The Emotions. 

99. Nature of the Emotions (122). The Emotions 
are mental states of pleasure or pain which spring from and 
accompany our Intellectual acts. Seusatious are referred 
to the body ; Emotions are referred to our ideas, to all 
our acts of knowing. Without knowledge acts, emo- 
tional acts are impossible. 

The natural expression of Emotion tends to heighten the 
emotion, because it strengthens the idea from which the emo- 
tion springs. Repression of the signs of emotion diminishes 
the emotion. The child, frightened by imaginary 
dangers in the dark, becomes more frightened if lie 
attempts to run from tliem. By use of a pathetic tone 
and other signs of grief one may produce in himself 
the emotion of grief. When angry, our anger is in- 
creased if we express the signs of anger. Whistling 
keeps up the courage. A humble attitude tends to 
produce a humble feeling. A noble bearing heightens 
the emotion of self-esteem. 

Emotion is the occasion of interest, hence it arouses the 
attention and aids the memory. The epoch of history 
which you are studying, by its conflicts, by the 
valorous deeds of its great actors, by the political and 
social changes wrought, by the many phases of human 
welfare presented, awakens many vivid emotions; 
you give your undivided attention to the historical 
picture and it makes an indelible impression on the 
memory. 

Emotion stimulates to action. You view a painting 

179 



180 PsycJiology. 



upon the wall. If it awakens no emotion whatever, 
— if it is a matter of perfect indifference, yon pass 
it by. The anticipation of pleasure in its artistic 
merit will lead you to advance and examine it. Pleas- 
ure in study leads you to continue the study. Painful 
regret at waste of time Avill incite you to renewed 
effort. 

Habit strengthens Emotion. You feel morose and in- 
dulge the feeling. Day by day the feeling groAvs and 
may become a permanent trait. On the contrary, you 
assume a cheerfulness you do not feel ; the effort 
becomes tendency, and a cheerful disposition may be 
established. Eepress anger and the tendency to 
anger is weakened. 

"For use almost can change the stamp of nature." 

Emotions are Retrospective, Immediate or Prospective. 

The recollection of childhood, home and mother 
awakens sacred sentiments. You approach the task 
before you with love and courage. The hope of an 
honored and happy old age stimulates to earnest 
effort for success. 

100. Classification. The emotions are very numer- 
ous and some of them very complex. It is possible 
to observe the ordinary emotions as they arise, make 
a list of them, and group together such as possess 
common characteristics. Many sj^stems of classifica- 
tion have been employed by different philosophers 
— none of them perhaps altogether satisfactory. For 
the purpose of this study some sj^stem may be adopted 
which, with reference to the apj)lication of principles, 
is couA^enient and practical. 

I am hopeful of success in my enterprise or I fear 



Feeling. 181 



failure. These emotions are awakened by ideas that 
refer to self, hence they are called Egoistic. I sym- 
pathize with my friend in his misfortune. The feeling 
of sympathy is aroused by ideas that refer to another 
and is called Altruistic. When Newton discovered 
the law of gravitation, doubtless he was thrilled with 
emotion at the result of his persevering inquiry. The 
pursuit and discovery of truth is accompanied by Intel- 
lectual emotions. You enjoy the sunset, or the statue 
of the Greek slave. Emotions of Beauty are called 
Esthetic. You learn of a just or noble act ; you ad- 
mire and approve. You see the path of duty ; you feel' 
obligation to pursue it. Emotions accompanying moral 
acts are called Ethical. Finally, you see a prize before 
you which it is possible for you to attain, you earnestly 
long to possess it. Emotions of longing and craving 
are called Desires. 

r Joy — Sorrow 

I Content — Discontent 

Egoistic Emotions.., ^ SJfs'LSoS^LTet 
Hope — Fear 
etc. — etc. 

Sympathy — Antipathy 
Altruistic Emotions . . \ Love— Hate 
etc.— etc. 

Emotions of Curiosity 
Intellectual Emotions \ Knowledge Emotions 



02 

O 
• I— I 

o 

a 



"I 
^1 



Truth Emotions 



Emotions of the Ludicrous 
Esthetic Emotions . . \ Emotions of the Beautiful 
Emotions of the Sublime 



( Emotions of Eight and Wrong 
Ethical Emotions -..••{ Emotions of Obligation 

( Emotions of Approval and Disapproval 



Desires. 



for Existence 
" Property 
" Power 
" Superiority 
" Knowledge 
" Esteem 



182 Psychology. 



EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 

101. Nature (123). Egoistic or personal emotions 
spring from ideas that pertain to self. Possession of 
whatever seems desirable for the welfare of the indi- 
vidual gives rise to pleasurable feeling. Loss, dep- 
rivation or failure occasions painful emotions. An 
orator prepares a discourse on some theme of great 
interest, he enjoys the prospect of success and is con- 
fident and hopeful. AVhen the occasion arrives he 
delivers his opinions with courage, and he is filled 
with an immediate emotion of just pride at their fav- 
orable reception. Afterward in retrospect he may 
view with satisfaction the good results of his conscien- 
tious and earnest advocacy't)f just jDrinciples. A man 
engages in some new business ; he is fearful of the 
result and approaches his work with timidity. He 
fails and feels humiliated. In after-years he re- 
grets his choice and his lack of vigorous enterprise. 
Egoistic emotions center in self. They are pleasurable in 
view of personal advantage ; painful in view of loss. They 
are Retrospective, Immediate, or Prospective. The prospec- 
tive emotions are accompanied by desire for future good. 
The personal emotions are the mainspring of action 
for self-interest. 

102. Some Important Egoistic Emotions (123). Joys 
and Sorrows fill a large place in human experience. 
They possess the minds of children and assume vast 
importance. Whatever children enjoy they want, 
often without regard to the wishes of others. In 
later years higher interests arise and subdue the petty* 
joys and griefs that center in self. " Joy expresses 
itself in the le\dty, uplifting, of the features of the face ; 



Feeling. 183 



Sorrow in the gravity, the drawing down, of the fea- 
tures." Content arises when a person finds enough in 
his occupation and surroundings to employ his ener- 
gies and satisfy his desires. Discontent is a painful 
sense of vacancy in one's life. This feeling may de- 
note morbid and unreasonable desires which could 
not be satisfied by the realized fullness of human pos- 
sibility. Pictures of content are fruitful themes for 
the novelist and the poet. Pride attends an exalted 
view of self. It makes one eager for excellence and 
sensitive if there is any real or apparent lack of com- 
mendable qualities. This feeling may become false 
and offensive and degenerate into Conceit or Haughti- 
ness together with a depreciatory and unjustly low 
estimate of others ; it is then a deforming vice. 
Humiliation, the opposite of Pride, follows some 
failure to attain our ideal standard ; it is a painful 
feeling, and it may be useful as a motive toward 
effort. In childhood this painful emotion may be 
awakened by a kind of sympathy with the opinions of 
others. Satisfaction, a retrospective emotion, exists 
in view of a life well spent and success attained. 
Regret follows a neglect of opportunities and loss 
of any kind. Great success may lead to a high degree 
of satisfaction ; extreme failure may cause terrible an- 
guish at the memory of opportunities forever lost. 
Hope and Fear are eminently egoistic feelings in the 
child, although i^a advanced years they may be con- 
nected with sympathy for others. All that is desirable, 
all that furnishes pleasurable emotions, all that con- 
cerns our own welfare, if in danger of loss, occasions 
the painful emotions of fear, and the desire that the loss 
may be averted. Whatever is desirable as contributing 



184 Psychology. 



toward enjoyment, if there is possibility of attainment, 
awakens hope. Ho23e and fear constitute a large share 
of our pain and pleasure, and are powerful motives to 
action. 

ALTKUISTIC EMOTIONS. 

103. Sympathy— Antipathy (124). Egoistic emo- 
tions terminate in self ; emotions of Sympathy and 
all Altruistic emotions are directed toward others. 
In sympathy we share others' joys and sorrows. Sym- 
pathy implies the power to remember our own feel- 
ings and the power to imagine the feelings of the one 
with w^hom we sympathize. 

Sympathy can not long be wholly one-sided. It is 
mutual in its nature and expects a response, a return. 
People who expect the sympathy of others must be 
able to enter into the thoughts and feelings of others. 

Sympathy has great influence on the happiness and 
conduct of men. General opinion sways the individual 
and he may be carried along by the common sentiment, 
sometimes almost against his own judgment. Desire 
for sympathy influences people in their acts, and the 
better impulses of a person may often be strengthened 
by the giving or withholding of sympathy at the proper 
times. 

The sympathy of children is awakened by some de- 
scription that recalls a former experience of their own, 
also by the signs of joy or suffering in others which 
they are accustomed themselves to present under 
similar circumstances. Sympathy may be shown by 
a very young child. As our experience enlarges and 
we are able more readily to interpret the signs of emo- 
tion in others, our power of sympathy grows. The 



Feeling. 185 



joy or pleasure of those around us tends to create a 
joyous spirit in us ; prevailing gloom dampens our 
own pleasure and leads us to share the common feel- 
ing. A high degree of sympathy exists when one is 
able to enter in a disinterested way into the plans 
and pleasures of others and to regard their interests 
and welfare. This bestowal of sympathy reacts to the 
happiness of the giver, and the man of sympathy may 
get much more enjojanent out of life than the selfish 
person.' 

While Sympathy is emotion with and for others, 
Antipathy is emotion against and away from others. 
It may result from baseless prejudice or from real dis- 
cord between temperaments and characters. Further 
consideration of Antipathy may be referred to the 
subject of Love and Hate. 

104. Love— Hate (124). After a child has long been 
associated with things that produce comfort and pleas- 
ure, he acquires a fixed regard for them, enjoys their 
presence and suffers at their loss. Thus originates 
the love of home and of familiar scenes. The basis 
of the love of a child for those who minister to his 
comfort and contribute to his happiness is largely this 

* " That man may last, but never lives, 
"Who much receives, but nothing gives ; 
Whom none can love, whom none can thank, 
Creation's blot, creation's blank." — Gibbons. 

*' Yet should some neighbor feel a pain 
Just in the parts where I complain, 
How many a message would he send ! 
What hearty prayers that I shoald mend ! 
Enquire what regimen I kept, 
What gave me ease and how I slept." — Swift. 



186 PsycJiology. 



selfish principle of liking what pleases ; a feeling of 
sympathy contributes to the intensity and completeness 
of the affection. 

Eegard for friends may open the way for the work- 
ing of influence, and the love of a child may make 
easy the labor of instruction and guidance. The re- 
gard for the scenes of childhood and the tender recol- 
lections of early experience are some of the most 
sacred and worthy feelings of the human heart. 

The different forms of Love are Love of God, Con- 
jugal Love, Love for Children, Love for Parents, Fra- 
ternal Love, Love of Friends and Love of Country. 
Love is the foundation of all happy association of 
human beings. It is the social emotion. It reveals 
the genial nature. It attracts man to man and man 
to his Maker. The pages of the Poet and the Novelist 
are filled with the theme. This fact alone shows how 
profoundly the emotion in all its forms interests the 
human soul. 

Whatever interferes with our own selfish enjoyment 
or our real or imagined rights, causing us to suffer 
some loss of enjoyment, whatever excellence in others 
makes us feel the pain of our own lack or deprivation, 
tends to awaken disagreeable feelings of resentment. 
These feelings may be classed under the generic term 
Hate. The rivalry of children in the attempt to outdo 
each other, the resentment at being deprived of play- 
things, the manifest feeling of pain and anger at seeing 
other children possess something which they do not, 
are examples. Real feelings of rivalry are unworthy 
of persons of mature judgment, because they do not 
refer alone to the enjoyment of one's own excellence, 
but they involve a desire of harm to others. 



Feeling. 187 



There may be, however, a feeling of emulation 
which is commendable ; such is the joy in accomplish- 
ing what others do, of measuring our powers with 
others, and of doing the best our powers and oppor- 
tunities allow. Feeling of antipathy against those 
who needlessly and continually cause pain may be 
just. " Eighteous Indignation " may at times prove 
useful. 

Love usually involves the desire of good to the 
object, and Hate involves the desire of harm ; hence 
these feelings are often classed as Benevolent and 
Malevolent. If Love is the sunshine of life. Hate is 
its cloudy, gloomy and forbidding aspect. Pure Love 
ennobles ; Hate degrades. 

INTELLECTUAL EMOTIONS. 

105. Emotions of Curiosity. The earliest form of 
Intellectual emotion is the impulse of curiosity and 
the joy of its gratification. To the child everything is 
new and wonderful. He is eager to enlarge his world 
of ideas, and questions constantly arise, often to the 
discomfort of older persons, who are expected to find 
answers suited to the child's undeveloped understand- 
ing. 

106. Knowledge Emotions. Obscurity and confusion 
are disagreeable, while clearness and distinctness are 
pleasurable. " We are soothed by the solution of a 
riddle." There is conscious power in the grasp fur- 
nished by the inductions of science ; — a knowledge of 
causes clears up obscurity and doubt. The discovery 
of practical adaptation of means to an end also fur- 
nishes intellectual pleasure. In all departments of 



188 Psychology. 



study there is some degree of enjoyment. Tlie gain- 
ing of new information awakens a sense of power. 
Every act of fine discrimination, every discovery of 
obscure similarity, every discovery of a cause, every 
development of a new truth through a reasoning pro- 
cess, every useful grouping of ideas, gives us a greater 
command of the field of knowledge, and is a source of 
enjoyment. 

107. Truth Emotions. After a high and refined 
development of intellectual emotions is attained, one 
may devote himself to the discovery of truth for its 
own sake, and the feeling of pleasure may involve no 
selfish regard for power or approbation. Eobert Hall 
says — " The Author of Nature has wisely annexed a 
pleasure to the exercise of our active powers, and 
particularly to the pursuit of truth, which, if it be in 
some instances less intense, is far more durable, than 
gratification of sense, and is on that account incom- 
parably more valuable. Its duration, to say nothing 
of its other properties, renders it more valuable. It 
may be repeated without satiety, and pleases afresh 
on every application of it." 

108. Growth of Love for Knowledge (125). As 
has been stated, desire for knowledge begins with the 
curiosity of the child ; perplexity is a source of pain 
and urges the child toward a solution. In school, by 
a kind of sympathy, the value of knowledge is im- 
pressed upon the child's mind, and every sanction is 
given to devotion to the discovery of new ideas. After 
the pupil is able to judge for himself, he connects the 
acquisition of knowledge with the enjoyment of power, 
position, success, etc. Since by exercise every faculty 
is strengthened and habit is fixed, pleasure in pursuit 



Feeling. 189 



of knowledge may be developed by the actual exercise 
of the faculties, which creates a demand for the re- 
newal of the exercise. A world of wonder lies about 
us. The law and order of the universe invite dis- 
covery ; mysteries await solution. Man tries to think 
the thoughts of God after him. Devotion to the 
pursuit of truth raises man in the scale of being. 
Success thrills the heart with deep feeling of wonder 
and delight. Imagine the joy of Copernicus when he 
learned the true theory of the solar system, of New- 
ton when he discovered the law of gravitation. No 
wonder men have withdrawn from the active world to 
contemplate with love and awe the wonders of crea- 
tion. Men forget their sorrows by devotion to studies. 
Goethe is said to have sustained his spirit under a 
crushing sorrow by turning to a new and difficult 
study. 

ESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 

109. Nature. Kinds. Beautiful and sublime ob- 
jects, witty sayings, ludicrous occurrences, are the 
source of emotions called Esthetic. These emotions 
serve for enjoyment and for refinement, but not for 
utility or action. These emotions are not awakened 
when anything painful or disagreeable accompanies 
the objects capable of producing them. As in case of 
a beautiful sunset or a fine painting or a flash of wit, 
their enjoyment is a common privilege. Accordingly 
Bain thus characterizes them : (1) They have pleasure 
for their immediate end; (2) They have no disagreeable 
accompaniments; (3) Their enjoyment is not restricted to 
one or a few persons.' 



1 Bain, Mental Science, p. 290, 



190 Fsychology. 



Tlie emotions described are of many kinds and 
shades, but thej are commonly classed under tliree 
heads : Emotions of Beauty, Emotions of SuUimity, 
and Emotions of the Ludicrous. Ugliness, Insignifi- 
cance and the Dull and Prosy are opposites of Beautj^, 
Sublimity and the Ludicrous ; they awaken disagree- 
able emotion. 

110. Emotions of Beauty. Nature of Beauty. The 
song of a bird, a sunset, the Sis tine Madonna, the 
Greek Slave, Tennyson's " Brook," the devotion of a 
pure life, noble thoughts, are beautiful. You pause 
before a landscape ; the eye falls upon stream, grove, 
and waving grain, all bathed in cheerful sunlight, and 
you exclaim, " How beautiful ! " In presence of the 
Beauty-world the soul expands, exults ; self is lost in 
contemplation of ideal perfection. 

The problem of discovering some principle common 
to beautiful objects has always puzzled philosophers. 
Emerson says tliat, taking warning from the fate of 
many philosophers, he attemjDts no definition of 
Beauty. Bain says, " The search after some common 
pro^^erty applicable to all things named Beautiful is 
now abandoned. The common attribute resides only in 
the Emotion." Dr. Samuel Harris, in " Philosophical 
Basis of Theism," Chap. X, notes a j)i'otest against 
this view. " Prof. Bain is mistaken when he says that 
the true idea has never been found. The aesthetic 
philosophy which teaches that beauty is the expres- 
sion of ideal perfection lias long been held by profound ■ 
thinl'ers. It meets all the conditions of the pi'oblem. 
It gives a princi]3le which explains all beauty by' 
the element of perfection common to all beautiful 
objects, from a China cup to a Corliss engin?, from a 



Feeling. 191 



painted flower to a Sistine Madonna or an Olympian 
Jupiter, from a violet or rose to the starry lieayens 
and the Cosmos itself, from the innocence of a child's 
face to the character of Jesus and the perfection of 
God." 

Among the things that contribute to emotions of 
Beauty we may note some that are familiar. There is a 
sensuous pleasure in a beautiful color, in light and 
shade, in melody and harmony. The perception of vari- 
ous qualities, as Symmetry, Adaj)tation in objects, adds 
to the pleasurable feeling: we say, "What a beautiful 
plan !" etc. Association of pleasant memories and 
symbolic ideas or sentiments may very much heighten 
the feeling of Beauty. Other emotions, as those of 
Novelty, Surprise, Wonder, may strengthen the emo- 
tion of Beauty. The things which may contribute to 
emotions of Beauty are: (1) Sensations, (2) Intellectual per- 
ceptions, (3) Association of memories and symbolic ideas, 
(4) Enhancing emotions of other classes.' 

As to whether Beauty is subjective or objective, i.e. 
existing in the mind or in the object, there has always 
been much discussion. The simple fact is that there 
are certain things in Nature and art and certain sen- 
timents capable, when presented to the mind, of 
awakening sesthetic emotion. In no practical sense 
can Beauty be said to exist without the mind or with- 
out the object. It is the conjunction of the two that 
produces the result. But it is proper and convenient 
to ascribe the Beauty to the object awakening the 
emotion. 



' Compare Spencer, Vol. II, Part IX, Chap. IX; Sully, p. 537; 
Bain, Mental Science, p. 293; McCosli, The Motive Powers, p. 151. 



192 PsycJiology. 



111. Beauty in Art and Nature. Beauty usually 
appeals to tlie eye and the ear. It is found in symme- 
try of form, harmony of color and sound. The archi- 
tect, using the forms of Nature which are pleasing to 
the eye, fashions a temple full of symmetry, order and 
adaptation. The grace of outline, the ideal propor- 
tion, the embodiment of typical ideas, furnished by 
the sculptor, may awaken deepest emotion. The 
Painter uses not only outline and figurative expression 
of idea, but adds harmony of color. The artistic 
arrangement of sounds in music stirs the heart with 
tender or deep emotion. 

Poetry charms not only by its rhythm, by its skillful 
arrangement of thought, by its word-painting, by its 
figurative expression, but also by touching the chords 
of that which is sacred and tender. Patriotism is 
essentially a poetic sentiment. We love old scenes 
for their sacred associations. Historical places,^ me- 
mentos of friendship, tokens of regard, are clothed 
with poetic sentiment and invite contemplation. 

The Esthetic feeling had its first exercise in con- 
templation of Nature. Here we find Objects of 
Wonder, Forms of Beauty, Perfection of Color, Variet}^ 
of Arrangement, Unity of Design — all those elements 
that tend to please and satisfy the aesthetic taste. 
Nature has every mood and is full of figures of ex- 

* " And hence the charms historic scenes impart; 
Hence Tiber awes, and Avon melts the heart, 
Aerial forms in Tempe's classic vale. 
Glance through the gloom, and whisper in the gale; 
In wild Vaucluse with love and Laura dwell, 
And watch and weep in Eloisa's cell." 

Rogers, Pleasures of Memory. 



Feeling. 193 



pression for all our ideas. The contemplation of 
Nature brings us nearer all that is beautiful and good.' 

112. Taste. "We have not only the power to enjoy 
objects of Beauty, but we can use the judgment to 
detect that which pleases in any object, and we can 
point out violations of Esthetic principles. The power 
of the child to discern Beauty, crude at first, grows 
by observation of beautiful objects, and is trained by 
the appreciation of others. 

There is a great variety of tastes, but there is, never- 
theless, a practical standard for Beauty. There are 
certain works of art, certain great poems, that have al- 
ways commanded the highest regard from all educated 
and cultivated people. Where there is any very gen- 
eral agreement of this kind, there may be said to be a 
standard of taste. ,We take for our models of beauty 
those things which are most pleasing to the refined. 
We judge writings by comparing them with the ac- 
cepted works of standard authors, the sculpture of the 
human form by comparing with the Apollo Belvidere 
or the Venus de Milo ; by the comparison we are able 
to discover the fault of a less artistic production. 

Since there is in taste an element of judgment, 
we may define thus : Taste is the discriminating power 
of the mind in regard to Wit, Beauty, or Sublimity. Since 
both judgment and feeling are concerned in taste, we 
may vary the definition. Taste is the power to perceive 
and feel whatever is Beautiful or Sublime in Nature and 
Art. 

113. Emotions of Sublimity. Akin to emotions of 
Beauty are those of Sublimity. While Form is an 

* Read McCosh, The Motive Powers, p. 164. 



194 Psyclwlogy. 



essential element in Beauty, Magnitude is an essential 
element in Sublimity. The ocean, vast plains, lofty 
mountains, the starry heavens, are sublime. We may 
speak of a sublime action or motive from the grandeur 
of purpose, will, or effort exhibited. This emotion 
partakes of awe and is perhaps not always altogether 
pleasurable. As a constant source of enjoyment. 
Sublimity is less satisfying than Beauty, because the 
mind is incapable of remaining long on that elevated 
plane. 

114. Emotions of the Ludickous. It seems that man 
alone discovers those incongruous relations of ideas 
and things which excite laughter. Man may be de- 
fined as a laughter-loving animal. A sense of the 
ludicrous arises when whatever is lofty or pretentious 
is humiliated, provided emotions of sympathy are not 
aroused. Things which do not naturally belong to- 
gether are brought into juxtaposition, as when a dude 
accidentally slips into the gutter.' Incongruity is the 
basis of the Ludicrous. Bain says, " The occasion of the 
Ludicrous is the degradation of some person or inter- 
est possessing dignity, in circumstances which excite 
no stronger emotion." 

The two chief classes of the Ludicrous are Wit and 
Humor. Humor is not of a marked character, but 
consists in a less striking incongruity of ideas which 
pleases, often without exciting laughter. Humor may 
be sustained, as in the novels of Dickens, and become 
a gentle all-pervading influence. Humor pleases but 
does not hurt. Good-nature is a characteristic of 

^ Read McCosh, The Motive Powers, p. 156. 



Feeling. 195 



humor. "Wit sparkles, its soul is brevity. It is quick 
and iucisive and may be so aimed as to wound. 

115. Gkowth of -Esthetic Emotions (126). The 
laughter of children is an OA^erflow of animal spirits 
rather than the result of any discovery of ludicrous 
relations. As much refinement is possible in the sense 
of humor as in the sense of Beauty. 

Pleasure in the sensuous element of beauty is the 
first experienced by the child, as the enjoyment of 
bright colors or musical sounds. All matters of taste 
in dress, of care about the home or in the school- 
room, beautiful tales, poetry, cultivate the sense of 
Beauty. It is by practice that the susceptibility and 
discriminating power are developed. By studying 
Beauty in Nature and works of art, by a sympathetic 
acquaintance with artistic effects in the masterpieces 
of literature, the emotional poAver may be strength- 
ened and refined. 

ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 

116. Nature. Classes. The Ethical or Moral Emo- 
tions spring from ideas of right and wrong ; they refer 
to our moral conduct ; they are concerned, not with 
what we may wish to do, but with what we ought to 
do. (1) I read of the deeds of Aristides and see them 
to be right ; I experience a feeling of pleasure. I re- 
view the life of Nero and see his deeds to be cruel ; I 
experience a feeling of pain. (2) You are tempted to 
lie because thereby you will reap some temporary 
advantage ; you perceive an obligation resting upon 
you and you feel an inward prompting, an impulse, 
an emotion of obligation to act the truth and avoid 



196 Psychology. 



falseliood. (3) Your neighbor restores property 
wrongly obtained ; you see it to be a meritorious act 
and feel approval. An unscrupulous schemer cheats 
a poor man ; you perceive the demerit of the act and 
feel disapproval. We are able (1) to perceive Right and 
Wrong and to experience the corresponding feelings ; (2) to 
perceive Obligation and to feel Obligation ; (3) to perceive 
Merit or Demerit and to feel Approval or Disapproval. 

117. Conscience' (127). The essential element of 
Conscience is Obligation, both the Perception and the 
Feeling. Conscience is often defined with reference 
to the intellectual element only, as follows : Conscience 
is the discriminating power of the mind with reference to 
Right and Obligation. Or, since both feeling and judg- 
ment are elements, we may thus define : Conscience is 
that which perceives and feels Right and Obligation. 

The child learns that some acts of others are harm- 
ful to himself and observes the effect of similar con- 
duct toward others. Whatever unpleasantly affects 
himself, he resents as wrong, and by sympathy he 
learns to view his own ill conduct toward others in 
the sande light ; so the conduct of another person 
toward a third comes to be regarded as right or wrong 
and the abstract idea of Eight and Wrong is devel- 
oped. Early education has much to do with the idea 
of right and the feeling of obligation. The admoni- 
tion of parent or teacher, the requirements of the law, 
the approval or condemnation of a community, since 



^ "Two things there are, which, the oftener and the more 
steadfastly we consider, fill the mind with an ever new, an ever 
rising admiration and reverence; — the Starry Heaven ahove^ the 
Moral Law within. " — Kant. 



Feeling. 197 



they bring feelings of pain or pleasure to tlie in- 
dividual, give a sanction to certain tilings, and create 
a dislike for others. In a community where an un- 
selfish idea of action did not exist the growth of moral 
perception and emotion would be slow and imj)erfect/ 
Practice the right, give free play to moral feeling ; 
habit helps make character. Yield to the higher and 
better impulses ; they guide toward the greatest good 
and happiness. Shakespeare well shows the value of 
habit in creating moral tendency. 

Queen. O Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain. 
Ham. O, throw away the worser part of it, 
And live the purer with the other half. 

Assume a virtue, if you have it not. 

For use almost can change the stamp of nature, 
And either shame the Devil or throw him out 
With wondrous potency. 

118. Standard of Conscience. Binding Force of Con- 
science. No doubt there have existed in different ages 

' " Conscience grows as the oak grows. As the tree needs earth 
in which to root itself and the air of which to breathe, so the con- 
science needs a seat in our mental nature, with a stimulus to 
make it germinate and expand. All along it is so far swayed by 
its surroundings. Its health will depend on the climate. When 
reared in a bare soil, it will be dwarfish. When exposed to cold 
and blighting, it will be stunted and gnarled. In a good soil and 
a healthy atmosphere, it will be upright and well-formed. In 
particular, it grows and spreads out with the intelligence which 
enables it clearly to apprehend facts and to discover the conse- 
quences. All this may be admitted, while we hold that the moral 
power could not have been produced without a native moral norm 
any more than a plant or animal could have been produced with- 
-McCosH, The Motive Powers, p. 224. 



198 Psychology, 



and countries varying opinions of right and wrong. 
No doubt many tilings may seem right to one which 
seem wrong to another. But amid all this diversity 
of judgments as to what is right, the voice of con- 
science is constantly saying — " Intend the right ; con- 
form to obligation ; ' your duty is to do all you can to 
learn the right, and to perform all the right you know." 
However conduct may vary in different individuals, 
and in countries of unequal degrees of light, yet in 
regard to what motives ought to be obeyed there has 
always been substantial agreement. 

What any one may think about the origin of con- 
science does not invalidate its binding force. Not 
only the law of God but the better sense of mankind 
teaches the Golden Eule. It is in the nature of things 
that men should imagine themselves in the place of 
their neighbors ; and, if they would attain the highest 
growth and happiness for themselves, that they sho«uld 
endeavor to do as they would be done by. The joy in 
well doing and the remorse for evil are common and im- 
portant feelings. They offer striking and extreme 
contrasts ; on the one hand serene joy, on the other 
the darkness and horror of despair.'* 



^ ' • Beware how you put the tinger of special pleading on the 
quivering needle of conscience, and forbid it to go north, south, 
east or west; beware of failing to balance it on a hair's point; for 
whoever tutors that primordial, necessary, universal, infallible 
perception, tutors a personal God." 

^ " It is proverbial that an evil conscience makes a man a cow- 
ard, for he does not know when some one may charge him with 
his sin, which he must either confess to his humiliation or deny 
with a lie, and he feels that he has no inward strength to fall 
back upon. On the other hand, a good conscience gives a man 



Feeling. 199 



DESIEES. 

119. The Desires. The possession of property, the 
prosperity of your friend, the acquisition of knowl- 
edge, a beautiful painting, give you pleasure ; you 
desire these things. The loss of propert}^, the mis- 
fortune of a dear relative, conscious ignorance, ugly 
and distorted objects, give you pain ; you desire to 
avoid them. Whatever gives pleasure we desire ; what- 
ever gives pain we desire to avoid. Desire is a craving for 
what will afford satisfaction. Did property afford no 
pleasure, were you totally indifferent to the beauty of 
a fine statue, these things would awaken no desire. 
Desires are based upon and accompany the feelings. There 
is pleasure in Existence, beyond is uncertainty and 
doubt from which we shrink. Property furnishes 
comfort, security and gratification, we enjoy it and 
fear its loss. Power increases our freedom and means 
of enjoyment, and it is an object of desire. Superi- 
ority carries with it a sense of agreeable contrast, of 
freedom and power. Knowledge clears away doubt 
and obscurity and is a source of power. Knowledge 



courage to resist the evil when it is coming in like a flood, and to 
stand by a good cause when friends, companions, the whole world 
may be against him."— McCosH, The Motive Powers, p. 219. 

'■'■ A peace above all earthly dignities, 
A still and quiet conscience." 

" O coward conscience, how dost thou afflict me ! — 
The lights burn blue.— It is now dead midnight. 
Cold fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. 

My conscience hath a thousand several tongues, 
And every tongue brings in a several tale, 
And every tale condemns me for a villain." 



200 Psychology. 



in some form is an object of universal desire. Cliil- 
dren early look to elders for approval and are pained 
by disapproval ; all persons are influenced by tlie 
opinion of others ; tlie desire for Esteem is a part of 
our nature. Some important desires are those for Exist- 
ence, Property, Power, Superiority, Knowledge, Esteem. 
The desires will be further studied in connection with 
the Will. 

APPLICATIONS. 

120. Self- Activity. The Principle of Novelty (94, 
95). The natural exertion of our powers is pleasurable. 
This is the source of self-activity. Self-activit}^ is to 
be fostered by every means ; this is true education. 
Lack of intellectual energy in pupils is often the fault 
of teachers. If the teacher acts as an inspiring guide 
and the powers of the pupil are not overtasked and his 
mind is not confused by inappropriate tasks, the con- 
sciousness of growth in mental power may act as a 
pleasurable incentive. In youth the anticipation of 
future enjoyment of power, influence and usefulness, 
resulting from his education, may lead one to the pur- 
suit of studies in themselves indifl'erent. 

If novelty increases the intensity of emotion, monot- 
ony, on the other hand, dulls the sensibility or rather 
fails to awaken it. Change is necessary to intensity 
of emotional life. It follows that any method of dis- 
cipline which never varies will lose much of its force ; 
constant punishment or harshness, even constant 
praise, finally lose their effect. Frequent change of 
work is necessary for young pupils. This principle 
has already been stated in connection with the sub- 
ject of Attention. 



Feeling. 201 



121. The Physical Feelings in Relation to Educa- 
tion (98). The child is vividly conscious of his bodily 
feelings ; his positions, his hunger, his thirst, his feel- 
ing of warmth or cold are uppermost in his mind. 
He understands motives that affect his bodily comfort 
or discomfort. It results that physical pain as a 
means of discipline has a philosophical basis. Inflic- 
tion with the rod may produce a salutary effect when 
a needed result can not be reached through the emo- 
tions. Some deprivation that produces bodily dis- 
comfort may also be employed. But one great work 
of education is to make the child forget his bodily con- 
ditions, to teach him to live in the world of thought 
and emotion. Home and school discipline which re- 
fuses to gratify every whim that has a physical basis 
has a most salutary effect. But as soon as possible, 
in discipline, fear of physical pain must be supplanted 
by appeals to higher motives. Only in this way can 
noble character be developed. 

122. The Principles of the Emotions Applied to 
Education (99). Since action depends upon emotion 
and there is a great variety of emotions, some good and 
some bad, the cultivation of some emotions and the 
repression of others is one great work of instruction, — 
a work which has an important bearing on the char- 
acter of pupils and their success in life. 

The signs of wrong emotion, as exhibitions of anger, 
fretfulness, selfishness, are to be repressed. Listless 
pupils, those who seem to find no interest in any 
thing, lack emotional power. They need awakening 
through the emotions. Some way should be found 
to ripple the stagnant waters. Some kind of activity 
once aroused may lead to activity in useful studies. 



202 Psycliology. 



Emotion grows by liabit. Eveiy fit of anger, every 
act of sympathy, every exercise of the liiglier emotions 
of Beauty and Knowledge, tends to the formation of 
good or bad emotional character. The formation of 
emotional habit is to an extent in the hands of the 
teacher. There is a great variety of temperaments 
among children, depending upon the absolute and rela- 
tive intensity of emotions. He who w^ould know the 
problems of education must understand the varieties 
of emotional nature. Highly emotional children need 
to be treated with peculiar skill by 23arent and teacher.' 

123. Education of the Personal Emotions^ (101, 
102). The satisfaction and pride which accompany 
the esteem of others, lead us to desire esteem. Ap- 
probation is not onl}^ a source of gratification to the 
recipient, but it may be used to encourage those lack- 
ing in confidence or in desire for excellence. 

A certain self-confidence and self-resjDect must be 
possessed by the pupil ; in some this must be culti- 
vated, while in others it must be repressed. Proper 
self-esteem, genuine pride, are desirable. By pointing- 
out wdiat is excellent in character, by approving tliat 
which is good and contrasting it with less desirabh 
traits, the desire for w^orthy traits of character- is cul- 
tivated. When self-esteem and pride become excessive 
or false, they may be corrected by punishment or humil- 
iation of some kind. These feelings are often dulled 
by inconsiderate treatment. As a means of discijDline 
censure which occasions a painful feeling of humiliation 

^Read Ladd, p. 576. on "Temperaments ;" McCosli, The Motive 
Powers, p. 178. 

''Read Ricliter's Levana, p. 339, § 116 ; p. 341, § 117. 



Feeling. 203 



cau by no means be avoided. It is frequently tlie 
readiest and best method of reaching a result. 

Hope stimulates, fear tends to paralyze. Timidity 
and fear need to be supplanted by confidence and hope. 
The kind of fear to cultivate is that of giving offense 
or pain — the fear of doing wrong. Kighteous indigna- 
tion, without loss of self-control, however, is sometimes 
needed to impress a lesson through fear upon a per- 
sistent culprit. 

124. Sympathy. Rivalry (103, 104). Habitual harsh- 
ness toward children makes them in turn regardless of 
the feelings of others ; exhibitions of kindness toward 
them create a disposition of sympathy for others. 
Kindness begets kindness. Sympathy and love are 
important as a basis for effective influence for good. 
Sympathy between teacher and pupil makes the work 
of all instruction and moral influence easier and more 
effective. The sympathy of others encourages our 
endeavors. 

The feeling of sympathy may be cultivated by re- 
lating incidents of suffering and need and relief ; by 
calling attention to the results of unkind and inconsid- 
erate acts, and to the happiness occasioned b}^ kindly 
acts. Calling attention to the good qualities of others, 
speaking well of others, and cultivating kind and gen- 
erous acts toward others, entering into the feelings of 
others, will tend to correct malevolent feelings and 
encourage sympathy. 

Studies should not be pursued in a spirit of rivalry, 
but with a love of knowledge and a desire for real 
excellence. Prizes are usually harmful in some way. 
Rivalry in a school, where so mau}^ are striving for 
approbation and distinction, invariably springs up. 



204 Psycliology. 



It may be diminislied by making prominent more 
worthy motives. Habits of anger indulged may give 
cast to character for life. Nothing is better than the 
influence of parent or teacher who gives no exhibition 
of such feelings. An even temper and quiet bearing- 
impress themselves on all with whom one may come 
in contact ; children reflect the feelings of others.^ 

125. Desire for Knowledge (105-108). Curiosity is 
natural, and, as has been said, pleasure follows the 
discovery of agreements and differences in objects of 
thought. The manner in which subjects are presented 
determines to a degree the pleasure of study. When 
the faculties are permitted to act naturally, when one 
step follows another in a clear path, there is a prob- 
ability that the child will be eager to pursue the work. 
The desire for knowledge, however, usually depends 
much upon feelings of emulation, desire for approba- 
tion, and desire for future good. But the love of 
knowledge may become an absorbing interest and one 
may learn to devote himself to the discovery of truth 
for its own sake. 



^ "The more delicately we treat the sensibilities of children, 
the more refined do they become; the more rudely, the more 
blunted. A coarse teacher makes a coarse child. It is possible 
to produce such a condition of sensibility among pupils that a 
word of disapproval is a sufficient punishment ; and it is also 
possible to produce such a state that loud scolding and perpetual 
blows are wholly ineffectual in maintaining even the rudiments 
of order. What proceeds from reason and gentleness inspires 
reasonableness and love ; what proceeds from irritation and 
physical force provokes irritation and a physical response. Ideas 
abide and react upon the conduct ; blows sting for a moment and 
leave little behind but fear and resentment." — Hill. 



Feeling. 205 



126. Means of Cultivating the Esthetic Emotions 

(115). All points of neatness about the house or 
schoolroom, care in the performance of work, pictures, 
etc., are the first practical means of awakening a pleas- 
ure in beautiful things and a disgust for the opposite. 
Drawing and singing in school work do much to de- 
velop taste. 

The right study of poetry, and fine literature in 
general, tends to the same end. Calling attention to 
points of beauty in art, indicating the variety of things 
in nature that are pleasing to the qjq or ear, cultivate 
the [esthetic feelings. Much of the happiness of life 
may consist in the enjoyment of aesthetic pleasures. 

127. Education of the Moral Feelings (117). Sully 
makes the development of the moral feelings depend upon 
(1) Authority; (2) Sympathy, Love, Respect; (3) Compan- 
ions, Surroundings ; (4) Moral Instruction. 

We can not expect that children vnll always choose 
that which is right, wisest or best, unless put under 
some restraint or compulsion. The law, to be re- 
spected, must have its penalties. Right is made right 
in the minds of many b}^ the very estimate put upon 
it by those who enforce it. Exact obedience, required 
in a spirit of kindness, helps to cultivate the moral 
sentiments and guides weak natures in spite of their 
own inclination in the path of right, justice and ulti- 
mate highest good.' 



^ "Herbert Spencer's doctrine of punishment [that of natural 
consequences] would permit boys to fall from high places, to 
breathe bad air, to poison their blood by the use of tobacco, and 
take the consequences, which he fancies would be more wise and 
just than the employment of artificial punishments." 



206 Psychology. 



Sympathy enables us to reach the will of a child 
and influence him toward proper conduct. Those 
whom children love and respect they fear to offend, 
and the benevolent feelings in general counteract the 
tendency to indulge malevolent feelings. 

Lax moral notions at home, in the school or in the 
community, are unfavorable to the growth of moral 
feelings in a child. Companions have a powerful in- 
fluence on young natures ; they are not strong to 
stand against prevailing sentiment in school or else- 
where. It is important that good sentiment prevail 
in a school, and that the child's companions and social 
surroundings be such as to exert good influence. 

Moral instruction has a value. A principle of con- 
duct firmly established acts as a guide in practical 
affairs. But mere instruction, "preaching," is not 
sufficient. What the child should do, he must prac- 
tice. The abstract notion of right does not profoundly 
influence us. Teach the child to perform kind, un- 
selfish, just acts ; to be frank, open, truthful ; to avoid 
mean, dishonest, insincere traits. From the practice 
spring ideas of right ; emotions of Right accompany 
the ideas, and character is thus firmly established. 

Finally, no person can afford to violate his own inner 
sense of justice. The wrong to one's self from a fault 
is often greater than to the one injured. Even from a 
practical point there is a difference in the nature of 
things ; some acts tend toward refinement and satis- 
faction and happiness, others in the opposite direc- 
tion. 



Feeling. 207 



EXERCISES. 

1. Define each activity of the Intellect. Define Feeling. 

2. Give some illustration of the fact that knowledge precedes 
emotion. 

3. Mention some emotions that prompt to useful action. 

4. Explain indisposition to effort. 

5. Effect of monotony upon the emotions ; of change. 

6. Give some illustrations of the principles of Harmony and 
Contrast in relation to emotional intensity. 

7. Why are sensations called physical feelings ? Analyze 
Hunger. 

8. Define Instinct, Appetite, General Sensation, Special Sen- 
sation. 

9. Describe the origin and growth of some emotion. 

10. Imagine a human being with no emotions. 

11. Mention some Ketrospective Emotions ; Immediate Emo- 
tions ; Prospective Emotions. 

12. Define Egoistic Emotions ; Intellectual Emotions ; Altruis- 
tic Emotions ; Esthetic Emotions ; Ethical Emotions. 

13. Of the personal feelings what ones should be cultivated ; 
what ones repressed ? 

14. Mention other species of Egoistic Emotions. 

15. Mention some emotions in view of success ; in view of 
failure. 

16. What emotions may we ascribe to Grant in view^ of his 
military success ; to Napoleon at his overthrow ? 

17. Analyze an act of Sympathy ; of Hate. 

18. Define emotions of Beauty; of Sublimity; of the Ludicrous. 

19. Mention the painful Esthetic Emotions. 

20. In view of what do painful ^Isthetic Emotions arise ? 

21. Give a good illustration of Humor ; of Wit, pointing out 
in the example in what the wit consists. 

22. Define Pun, Burlesque, Satire, Sarcasm. 

23. Mention any building, piece of statuary, painting, piece of 
music, or poem which possesses beauty in a marked degree, point- 
ing out any elements which contribute to the effect. 

24. Analyze an act of conscience. 



208 Psychology. 



25. Analyze some desire. 

26. How is self-activity fostered ? 

27. Sum up the means that may contribute to the growth of 
sympathy. 

28. Can the pursuit of knowledge be made always agreeable ? 

29. Would it be a safe practice never to inflict physical pain as 
a means of discipline ? 

30. What general principle of education may be drawn from 
the fact that all emotions are agreeable or disagreeable ? 

31. What is the effect upon the young of examples of selfish- 
ness, cruelty, dishonesty, etc. ; of their opposites ? 

32. What is the natural effect of indulging frequent outbursts 
of anger ? 

33. Give a general estimate of the importance of surroundings 
in educating the moral sentiments. 

34. Why is moral instruction an important means of moral 
training ? 

35. Why is concrete instruction more effective than abstract ? 

36. What is the value of maxims in moral training ? 

- 37. Of two motives equally effective in securing immediate re- 
sults, which should be used, the higher or the lower ? Why ? 



WILLING. 

128. Nature of Will ; Elements. Every one is con- 
scious of a power to act whenever some motive for 
action is presented to the mind. This power is ex- 
erted toward something desirable, if it seems possible 
that the thing desired can be attained. Will is the 
power of the mind to exert conscious action toward some end. 

Every one is acquainted with the terms Desire, De- 
liberation, Choice, and the mental phenomena which 
they indicate. Non- Voluntary Action may be defined 
as action in which conscious decision and directive 
effort of the mind are wanting. 

In order to understand the relation of Will to the 
other mental powers and the relation of the elements 
of will to each other, let us imagine a case. I enter 
an art gallery and view a beautiful painting ; I study 
the conception which it embodies, the details of exe- 
cution, and acquaint myself with the name of the 
artist. I experience a feeling of delight at the perfec- 
tion of the work, and imagine what pleasure might 
come to me and my friends from the possession of the 
painting. A strong desire to purchase follows and, 
returning home, I deliberate upon its advisability ; 
this deliberation results in a decision to buy ; the 
next day I carry my choice into effect. Here is an 
exercise of the three powers. Knowing, Feeling, and 
Willing. The knowledge of the painting preceded the 

209 



210 Psychology. 



emotions, the emotions preceded tlie Act of Volition. 
Knowledge precedes and gives rise to Emotion; Emotion 
precedes and gives rise to Acts of Will. No amount of 
knoiuledge of the painting would have led to action, 
unless emotion had been awakened, hence the emotions 
are said to stand between knowledge and volition. 

Eeferring again to our illustration. Desire was the 
first element leading to action ; if no desire had been 
awakened by the emotion, action could not have fol- 
lowed ; it is the nature of emotion, however, to be 
accompanied usually by desire. Upon the desire the 
Deliberation, Choice and Execution naturally followed 
in the order stated. The Elements associated with and 
including an act of will are Desire, Deliberation, Choice, 
Executive Volition.^ 

129. Desire as Motive. Emotions are either pleas- 
urable or painful ; we seek that which produces pleas- 
ure and avoid that which produces pain. While 
experiencing a pleasure, we desire its continuance ; if 
the experience is painful, we desire change. If we 
picture in our minds some good which we do not 
possess, we may feel a lack, a desire to attain it, and 

^ Choice and Executive Volition are the characteristic elements 
of a complete act of will. Desire is feeling, Deliberation is intel- 
tectual, while Choice and Execution are the active and decisive 
elements following the desire and deliberation. 

Not all these elements are prominent in every act of Will. 
Following some pleasant or painful experience action may occur 
by a quick impulse, hardly leaving time for conscious desire or 
deliberation or choice, yet these elements are consciously present 
in all "deliberate" acts. 

The acts summed up as non-volantarij, I think should be ex- 
cluded from Will proper, although some of these acts may con- 
tain the germs of Will. 



Willing. 211 



if we think tlie attainment possible the desire may 
lead to action. That which is disagreeable, if not 
present yet likely to occur, we desire to avoid, and 
this desire also may lead to action. Emotions are agree- 
able or disagreeable. We desire that which occasions 
agreeable emotion ; we desire to avoid that which occasions 
disagreeable emotion. Desire is the motive which leads to 
action. 

A child first makes voluntary effort in view of some 
object which he remembers to have furnished enjoy- 
ment. After a time what has furnished pleasure in 
the past, even when not present, is remembered and 
projected into the future as something desirable. 
The imagination may picture a possible means of good 
in the future. Children desire present enjoyment ; 
they do not act with reference to the future because 
their stock of representative images is small, and they 
are unable to picture remote results vividl}^ Repre- 
sentation is a condition of Desire. In childhood a represen- 
tation attaches itself to a present object, later it is projected 
into the future. 

When the mind is developed, is well stored with 
images of memorj^ is able to look ahead and see what 
action may lead to good results, the desires that may 
arise and exist as motives to action are very numer- 
ous ; amongst these desires there is often a conflict and 
a victory of the strongest. Malevolent and kindly 
feelings may struggle for the mastery; selfish and 
sympathetic emotions may oppose each other ; the 
desire for future good and inclination for present en- 
joyment may offer their claims, — in short there may 
be as many desires or motives as there are objects of 
interest. When two or more motives present their 



212 PsycJiology. 



claims at the same time, tlie elements of Deliberation 
and Clioice may become prominent. The choice may 
be made with reference to a course of action extend- 
ing over a long period, or with reference to a remote 
act so that the Executive Volition, the final act, may 
be postponed for a long time. Motives are numerous. 
Motives oppose each other. In view of opposing Motives, 
Deliberation and Choice are employed. A Choice may be 
made with reference to an immediate act, to a course of 
action, or to a remote act. 

The two most important classes of Motives which 
frequently oppose each other are Sense of Obligation 
and Selfish Desire. As learned under the "Moral 
Emotions," we naturally feel an obligation to choose 
that which, with reference to future results, our judg- 
ment approves as best; also, to act according to a 
sense of Eight. At the same time present inclination 
or selfish desire may solicit us. The most important 
conflict of motives is between Obligation and Selfish Desire. 

130. NoN- Voluntary Movements.' There is a large 
class of movements which involve no action of the 
Will; there are other movements which involve such 
a slight degree of Will as to be called Non- Voluntary. 
(1) The nervous system from its store of vital force 
gives rise to purposeless movements. Many move- 
ments of young children, imj^ulsive or unconscious 
changes of position when a person is in full vigor of 

' Read Sully, pp. 593-596; Carpenter, § 79. 

The following are modes of Non- Voluntary activity: (1) Reflex 
Action^ already explained; (2) Sensori-Motor Action^ as when one 
conscmisly but without intention withdraws his hand from a hot 
stove; (3) Ideo-Motor Action., as when spontaneous laughter fol- 
lows an incongruous idea. 



Willing. 213 



health, are of the character mentioned. (2) Many acts 
are reflex, as unconscious rubbing of the hand when it 
is slightly irritated, involuntary winking when some 
object approaches the eye, starting at some sudden 
sound, walking or playing an instrument when the 
attention is upon something else. Many such acts 
emanate from the sub-conscious region, and there is 
little or no conscious exertion of will. (3) The move- 
ments of a child are at first largely instinctive. It 
acts according to inborn tendencies to meet its physi- 
cal wants, has a natural instinctive timidity and 
reaches impulsively after attractive objects. Random, 
Reflex and Instinctive movements may be regarded as Non- 
Voluntary. ' 

131. Development of Will (136, 137, 138, 139). 
With the child random, reflex, and instinctive move- 
ments are the first exercised. Eandom movements 
resulting from vital energy are pleasurable ; reflex 
movements, as changing uncomfortable positions, 
furnish relief ; instinctive movements, as looking at 

' Carpenter would add to the class of non-voluntary acts — " AVe 
see that, even in Man, intellectual operations of a high order may 
go on Automatically^ — one state of consciousness calling forth 
another in strict accordance with the 'laws of thought' without 
any volitional interference; and also that ideational as well as 
emotional states may express themselves in Muscular action, not 
only without any exertion of the will, but even in opposition to 
it." 

'-'■ Automatic Ys\Q)\A.(y(\'& are such as, without any corresponding 
idea or fiat of the will, originate from inner excitations of the 
central nervous system; the reflex aire those in which the central 
excitations resulting in motion are traceable to the action of 
sensory nerves which have been peripherally excited." — Ladd, 
p. 526. 



214 Psycliology. 



a bright object or reacLiug after it, are a source of 
pleasure. Spontaneous movements accidentally bring 
pleasure or relief, are prolonged or repeated until an as- 
sociation is formed between the movement and the result.' 

By observing others the child naturally learns to 
imitate their acts, and this constitutes another stage 
in the growth of will. 

Before the judgment is developed, children must 
perform some acts and avoid others because they are 
so directed. The will of the parent is substituted for 
the will of the child ; the child obeys either instinc- 
tively or through fear or love. Thus the power of 
self-control is educated. 

Later, motives of many kinds become the basis of 
action, and, if the natural tendencies of the child are 
right, if the surroundings are desirable, and wise in- 
fluence is employed, his will may become a power to 
guide him toward all that is highest and best. 

The means through which Will Power develops are Nour 
Voluntary Movements with their accidental associations, 
Imitation, Authority, Motives. 

132. Will and Habit ^ (137, 138). Bodily habit 
may be so strong as to resist for a time efforts of the 
Will to correct it. Executive Yolition, acting as it 
does through the nerves and muscles, creates a physi- 
cal tendency to perform again a given movement. 
After a time the movement requires less Will and the 
physical tendency may finally become so strong as to 
successfully oppose the Will. The relation between 
the Will and the Body is very intimate. By the directive 

» See Bain, Bk. IV, Chap. 11. 
» Bead Carpenter, §§ 290-293. 



Willing. 215 



power of the Will tendency to physical action is formed 
which tendency may react upon and influence the Will. 
Hence the importance which is attached to Regularity 
and Order. The child which is hushed to sleep at 
night expects that attention and cries for it. The 
habit of falling asleep naturally without such atten- 
tion is quite as readily formed. Regular hours for 
sleeping and for taking food are imjDortant to the child. 
The required positions and movements of the school- 
room, gymnastics, etc., render physical action and re- 
straint easier, and open the way for the influence of 
authority. Such habits are useful, but habit may 
become so prominent as to interfere with the intelli- 
gent activity necessary to the formation of character. 

Imitation contributes to the growth of the will. 
The atmosphere in which a child lives does much to 
form his tendencies. If duty is the ruling motive of 
action, as shown by all the daily incidents of the home 
circle, if sentiments of justice and right prevail, if 
sympathy and love control the intercourse, the child 
by unconscious imitation of his elders and companions 
will form habits of the highest worth in the growth 
of character. By unconscious imitation, benevolent and 
moral emotions and consequent good desires and tendencies 
may become habitual. 

The principle of habit extends to all acts of will. 
Decision for or against a course of action tends to 
make the next decision easier, if the motives remain of 
the same kind and intensit}^ 

133. Self-Control. ' Character. Influence. Since 
motives lead to acts of will, can we control our action ? 

^ See Bain, Mentcal Science, p. 344; Carpenter, §§ 330-332; 
Harris, Philosophical Basis of Theism, pp. 378-384. 



216 PsycJiology. 



We may answer : We are conscious of a power to refrain 
from executing our impulses, i. e. to refrain from bodily action. 
Emotion may be suppressed by effort of will. It is well 
known that, if we restrain the impulse to give outward 
expression to anger, the emotion is lessened. This is 
done by a strong effort of will. It is an apt descrip- 
tion to say we " swallow our wrath." Constantly 
many an impulse to wrong-doing is restrained as un- 
worthy. Again, We may use the power of Attention to 
direct the mind away from unworthy motives and toward 
worthy ones. Knowledge precedes Emotion, and we 
have already learned that the Attention may be di- 
rected at will to this or that object of thought. What- 
ever knowledge leads to unworthy emotions and de- 
sires may be discharged from the mind and the atten- 
tion may be fixed upon something else. As just ex- 
plained, we can banish some emotions and leave room 
for others to hold sway. By persistence in giving the 
thoughts to worthy, elevating and ennobling things, the 
nature of motives may gradually be changed and the 
whole tendency of character may be modified. When 
desire and duty habitually act in the same direction, 
little energy is wasted in conflict of motives and the 
individual possesses practical freedom of will. 

The term Character is used in a loose way to mean 
any distinguishing traits, good or bad, but in a limited 
sense it means that sum of traits which constitutes 
good character. Many epithets are used to indicate 
the degrees of excellence or strength of character. 
We understand that a person possesses a good character if 
his predominant motive is The Right. If a man always 
measures his proposed acts by high standards of Jus- 
tice, Kindness, and Prudence, he is sure of his motives 



Willing, 217 



and is not likely to go astray in his conduct.' No 
consideration should permit one to depart from those 
standards. Selfishness and Policy as leading motives 
of conduct expose one to the just contempt of all good 
men. 

A knowledge of the different kinds of motives ac- 
quaints us with the avenues of approach to the will of 
others. Fear, Selfishness, Pride, Love, Desire for 
comfort and for respect, Sense of Eight, are motives 
through which men may be influenced. An appeal to 
sense of duty may frequently strengthen that motive 
so far as to make it the prevailing one. Pride or Pru- 
dential Considerations may influence one when other 
motives fail. It is said that no one is so far lost to bet- 
ter motives, that some hidden source of good impulse 
may not be found. Recollections of childhood may 
open the floodgates of tender emotion until it again 
pervades the being of one seemingly hardened in un- 
worthy conduct. 

134. Perseverance. Firmness. There are certain 
characteristics of will most desirable to possess. A 
person who is able to choose a worthy aim, to decide 
what, upon the whole, is the best course of conduct, 
and is willing to waive present enjoyment and all 
minor considerations until the end is attained is said 
to possess Perseverance. Perseverance is the greatest 
element of success. A little day by day, — the years 

' " The highest exercise of the Will is shown in those who are 
endowed with vigorous Intellectnal powers, and whose strong 
Emotional nature gives force to all their tendencies to action; but 
who determinately fix their attention on the divine ideal and 
steadily endeavor to shape their character and direct their con- 
duct in accordance with it. "—Carpenter. 



218 Psychology. 



go swiftly, — and by and by great advancement lias 
been made. 

Even when a course is seen to be tlie best, some 
men's minds are easily swayed by fear or by desire for 
popularity. The will which can adhere to a purpose 
in difficult circumstances possesses the quality of 
Firmness. 

135. Freedom of Will. The much vexed, much dis- 
cussed, and unsettled question of the Freedom of the 
Will demands a passing notice. Whatever metaphysi- 
cal discussion or scientific investigation may seem to 
reveal as to the Nat are of the Will, there are some 
practical facts not to be ignored. The Civil Law 
holds men responsible for their acts ; Conscience 
holds men responsible for their acts ; the Law of God 
holds men responsible for their acts ; and we all be- 
lieve from our own inner consciousness that we can 
act as we please. Even if the Will is not free, practically 
we must act as if it were free. There is a choice of mo- 
tives ; he who chooses best chooses wisely. 

The arguments commonly used against Freedom of 
the Will are these : (1) We must choose in view of the 
strongest motive, and we can not control our motives. 
(2) No event is without cause, therefore an act of will 
is caused. (3) If the will were free, i.e. if its acts 
were self-caused, our conduct would be wholly erratic. 
On the contrary it is argued (1) We are conscious of 
power to choose as we will and to act as we choose. 
(2) Freedom of will is involved in the idea of moral 
obligation.' 

' Read Harris, Philosopliical Basis of Theism, pp. 365-376. 
" (1) We find freedom supported by a somewhat positive con- 
sciousness. (2) We find it also implied in the principles by which 



willing. 219 



APPLICATIONS.' 

136. Activity of Children (131). The germs of 
will are developed iu part by bodily activity. lu 
cliildliood active movements, sports, sufficient exer- 
cise, are not only healthful, but control of the bodj 
through the will is thus gained and the will itself is 
exercised. Restlessness of children is natural and 
should not be unduly restrained or punished ; but 
frequent restraint from activity is not only conven- 
ient for the quiet and comfort of others, but it is a 
necessary education in self-control. All healthful 
positions, orderly movements, and restraint from noise 
and confusion in the schoolroom have an educational 

men and societies live. (3) We find its denial leading to skepti- 
cism of reason itself. (4) Opposed to these facts we find the ne- 
cessitarian argument, leading at best to no more than a drawn 
battle. We may therefore decide in favor of freedom. Wo may 
not view it as absolutely proved ; yet it is certainly a necessary 
postulate of reason and conscience, and as such we hold it." 

"We see, then, that our freedom is far from absolute. It is 
limited, on the one hand, by our mental and physical constitu- 
tion; and, on the other, by the intensity of the desires and im- 
pulses which it has to control. These might be so intensified as 
to execute themselves without permission from the will, and in 
spite of it. Within these limits freedom has its realm ; and even 
these limits are not fixed. The outcome of volitional action is 
habit, fixed disposition, settled character. The soul may freely 
bind itself with chains which it can never undo. Here lie the 
psychological significance of probation and the tragic element of 
freedom. Freedom may choose the seed, but it can neither de- 
termine nor escape the harvest." — Bowne. 

' Read Locke on Education, §§ 32-66, and 76-90; Comenius, 
pp. 118-121 and 124-127 ; Richter's Levana, §§ 61-71 ; Fitch, 
Chap. IV; Spencer's Ed., Chap. Ill; Bain's Ed., pp. 100-119. 



220 PsycJiology, 



value. There must be, however, frequent intervals of 
relaxation. The will is cultivated both by vigorous action 
and by restraint from action. 

137. Example (131, 132). If it is true, as has been 
said, that a healthful atmosphere influences toward 
right action, it is not less true that an unhealthful 
atmospliere produces the opposite result. A child 
readily imitates whatever he observes in his compan- 
ions, and the wise control which judicious parents 
exercise over the choice of companions for their chil- 
dren can not be too strongly commended. It is often 
said that sooner or later children must mingle with 
the world as it is ; true, but let that be done when the 
character is fortified by habits of excellent conduct, 
and by foresight of consequences. In early childhood 
moral ideas may be deeply impressed, and that too 
without marring the happiness of the child. 

Teachers should exemplify in their own conduct the 
principles of Right and a spirit of kindness. For the 
sake of good mutual influence among pupils all rea- 
sonable means should be employed to make the sen- 
timent of the school excellent. Anything false and 
deceptive on the part of a teacher, even the habit of 
posing as a martyr in their interest, is quickly de- 
tected by pupils and does harm. 

138. Authority (131, 132). The inclination of child- 
hood for present enjoyment needs restraint. No num- 
ber of remote motives placed before children would 
accomplish all that is to be desired; hence authority 
intervenes to prevent unwise action and to establish 
good habits. Nothing else is so harmful as constant 
indulgence of the whims and inclinations of children, 
of the freaks of temper or obstinacy or pertinacy ; 



Willing. 221 



except the continual ''No" and "Don't" wliicli are 
employed by some parents. Children may be al- 
lowed proper freedom without letting their inclina- 
tions run riot with their will. It is next to impossible 
for an untrained child to become a noble and useful citizen, 
because the seeds of good conduct have not been sown. 

Passionate chiding is frequently indulged in b}^ 
parent and teacher, but this tends to cultivate only 
ill-will and obstinacy. Be sparing of commands, but 
let them be decisive and promptly obeyed. This 
must be done for the sake of consistency. Without 
consistency in requirements it is impossible to train 
the will by authority. To form habit certain things 
must be uniformly done under the ^ame recurring 
conditions. 

It is often said that the certainty of punishment is 
more effective than its severity. Undue severity tends 
to awaken feelings of injustice ; certainty tends to 
form habit. Another principle is, Let the severity of 
the punishment correspond with the degree of the offense. 
It is always better to employ mild punishment, if that 
will suffice, but " spoilt " or obstinate children some- 
times need summary measures. Locke would reserve 
the rod for these. In determining the nature and degree 
of punishment the motive and the consequence of persist- 
ence are to be considered/ 

^ On the subject of Punishment read Kosenkranz, §§ 38-45. 
Some of the opinions expressed by Eosenkranz and in the notes 
by Dr. Harris are as follows: Punishment is justifiable only when 
all other efforts have failed. Corrective punishment seeks the 
improvement of the delinquent; retributi^ye punishment seeks the 
return of the deed upon the doer. Punishment must be modified 
by the pecuUarities of the individual offender, and by the circum- 



222 Psychology. 



Excessive use of Autliority tends to a reaction when 
the restraint is removed. Indeed this reaction will 
naturally occur when the autliority has not been ex- 
cessive, — but only temporarily ; habit established by 
authority will tend to prevail. Too much authority 
robs one of that independent growth which develops 
self-control. 

139. Motives (131). To invite the will by proper 
motives is the best method for parent, teacher, and 
later for the individual himself. In another place the 
motives which are commonly used to influence chil- 
dren were stated to be Fear of Pain, Love of Praise, 
Hope of Future Good, Desire for Excellence, Duty. 

Injudicious praise is nearly as harmful as injudicious 
punishment. Praise and censure or physical pain, 
each has its place in the growth of character, and 
each will be effective so far as it is employed with 
justice. Constant praise prevents the growth of 
worthier motives. Unless the occasion demands that 
the humiliation be public, blame will be more effect- 
ive if given in private ; thus the justice of the censure 

stances. Some kind of corporal punishment is most suitable for 
children, isolation for older boys and girls, and punishment based 
upon the sense of honor for young men and women. Corporal 
punishment is the kindest method of dealing with willful defi- 
ance, obstinate carelessness, or a really perverted will. Kegu- 
larity, silence, attention and industry are indispensable for the 
associated effort of the school, and the pupil who persistently 
violates these conditions should be isolated from the school. Not 
personal likes and dislikes but the rational necessity w^liich is 
over teacher and pupil alike causes the infliction of pain on the 
pupil. 

Herbert Spencer urges the principle of natural consequences 
in the punishment of children. 



willing. 223 



will be more easily recognized and less antipathy will 
be aroused. 

Sympathy may be used injudiciously. A cliild wlio 
demands sympathy for every trifling hurt is not culti- 
vating courage or self-control. It is a mistake to 
yield to a child's wishes because he unreasonably 
cries to have his own way. 

Future good and excellence of character should be 
held before children as soon as they can effectually 
use them as motives. In history and biography much 
material can be found for inspiration of youth. Pic- 
turing future results leaves impressions in the mind 
that may come into prominence after a time. In gen- 
eral those motives should be employed which tend to 
give a noble, self-reliant tone to the mental constitu- 
tion/ and which tend to thoroughly establish right 
principles of conduct. 

It is unwise to expect perfection in children. Their 
period of education is a period of errors and faults, — 
a period of mental and moral growth. They are 
placed in the hands of the teacher, that the errors 
and faults may be corrected, that their intellectual 
and moral powers may be developed by proper 
methods. 

^ Dr. White says, "The most efficient training of the will 
involves an appeal to the religious motives, and this inference is 
strongly supported by the fact that the religions motives quicken 
and energize all the lower motives to which the'y are related. 
. . . There has never been a moral code that secured the free 
obedience of men, that did not derive its highest and most re- 
straining authority from religion; and this is true in pagan as 
well as in Christian lands." 

See further, White's Pedagogy, pp. 324 330. 



224 Psychology. 



140. Self-Control. Tliis is an age of individual 
freedom ; the wise self-control of the citizen consti- 
tutes the safety of the state. Those who, during their 
entire period of education, have been controlled wholly 
either by authority or by love are not prepared to meet 
the responsibilities of life. As soon as possible, self- 
guidance through proper motives must be encour- 
aged and secured. When the powers have been so 
trained that desire and duty act in the same direction, 
then Freedom of Will is attained, — freedom in the 
sense that the will is unfettered by the urgency of 
wrong motive. 

Good character is the end of discipline, and its formation 
is the most important part of education. 



1. Illustrate the relation of Will to the other faculties. 

2. Review in order the office of Perception, Memory, Imagina- 
tion, Conception, Judgment, Reasoning, Emotion, Desire, Will. 

3. Illustrate the fact that Representation is a condition of 
Desire. 

4. Mention some motives of the better class. 

5. Give an example of conflict of motives. 

6. How may change of scene influence the Will ? 

7. How may it be explained that some choose wrong motives in 
spite of excellent influences ? 

8. Show how habit may enslave the Will. 

9. Enumerate the ways in which one may build up good char- 
acter. 

10. How might the will of a child be reached whose disposition 
had been hardened by harmful surroundings ? 

11. Analyze Perseverance. 

12. Analyze Weakness of Will. 

13. Moral responsibility is based upon what ? 



Willing. 225 



14. Examine each argument for and against Freedom of Will. 
Produce other arguments, 

15. Dangers from lack of restraint. 

16. Are there any objections to Herbert Spencer's doctrine that 
punishment should always be a natural consequence of the fault ? 

17. Dangers from excessive praise. 

18. After children are finally released from the restraints of 
home and school, they frequently use their freedom unwisely for 
a time. Does this fact show that authority is harmful ? 

19. What good habits naturally grow from the restraints and 
requirements of school life ? 

20. How far may charity for the faults of children be exercised ? 

21. Value of a strong will. 



226 PsycJiology. 

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APPENDIX. 

The Intuitions. 

There are certain notions called variously Necessary 
Ideas, Intuitions, Primitive Notions, etc., wliicli seem 
not to be wholly accounted for by experience ; tliey 
appear to sjDring up independently during the growth 
of knowledge. Such are the ideas of Space, Cause, 
Time, etc. 

There are various theories as to the origin of these 
ideas. Locke ascribes their origin to sensation and 
reflection.^ Herbert Spencer thinks that individual ex- 
perience alone will not account for them, and concludes 
that they are inborn in the sense that they represent 
the experience of our ancestry accumulated and trans- 
mitted by heredity.'' Dr. McCosh, representing still 
another school of thinkers, holds that a capacity to 
know certain truths called intuitive is implanted in our 
nature by the Divine Being, and that these truths arise 
during the acquisition of our knowledge of objects. 

The criteria by which Intuitions are tested are Self-evi- 
dence, Necessity, Universality. An intuition is self-evi- 
dent, i.e. if needs no proof ; it is necessary in the sense 

^ See McCosh, Intuitions, p. 88. 

"^ " The human brain is an organized register of infinitely nu- 
merous experiences, received during the evolution of life, or 
rather, during the evolution of that series of organisms through 
which the human organism has been reached." — Spencer, Vol. I, 
p. 470. 

227 



^28 PsycJiology. 



that we must believe it when presented to the mind ; 
it is universal in the sense that all men believe it when 
occasion calls attention to it. For instance, the belief 
that a straight line is the shortest distance between 
two points needs no proof, we must believe the truth, 
and all intelligent beings must believe it. In imagi- 
nation we may annihilate matter, but we can not get 
rid of the idea of Space ; if we try to remove space, 
space remains behind. 

McCosh divides the Intuitions into Primitive Cog- 
nitions, Primitive Beliefs, Primitive Judgments, Moral 
Convictions. The following lists are drawn from the 
pages of his work, " The Intuitions of the Mind." 



Intuitions of the Mind. 

PRIMITIVE cognitions. 

Being. In all knowledge we know what we know as 
having existence, which is Being. It is very probable 
that the first knowledge acquired by the mind is of 
our own bodily frame through the sensitive organism. 
Coexisting with every intelligent act of mind there is 
always a consciousness of Self as having being, exist- 
ence. 

Substance. Our cognition of substance is original 
and fundamental. We never know qualities without 
also knowing substance. 

Mode, Quality, Property, Essence. (1) It is one of 
the permanent characters, both of mind and body, 
that they are ever known as changing ; the given state 
of any one substance is Mode. Substance implies 



Appendix. 229 



mode ; this is a truth intuitively discovered. (2) Sub- 
stance implies Quality ; this is also an intuitive' truth. 
Certain qualities are known by us intuitively to be in 
mind or matter ; for example, we know wdll as in 
mind and extension as being in matter. (3) The term 
Property might be appropriated to express the powers 
of any given substance, as thinking in mind, gravity 
in body. Faculty may be employed for mental powders, 
Force for material powers. (4) There are some things 
wdiich w-e know to belong to the Essence of certain 
objects ; thus we know that being, power, and perma- 
nence are essential to all substance, and that certain 
qualities, such as consciousness and thought, belong- 
to mind, and certain qualities, such as extension and 
incompressibility, to body. 

Personality. The mind ever carries wdth it a con- 
viction of personality. 

Extension. The knowledge of extension is involved 
in every exercise of sense-perception. 

Number. Every object known, and especially self, 
is known as one. Every other object known is known 
as another one. Hence arises the idea of number. 

Motion. Our perception of motion appears to be 
intuitive. 

Power. We can never know^ either self or bodies 
beyond self, except as exercising influence or potency. 



PRIMITIVE BELIEFS. 



Space and Time. Of space and time in the concrete 
we have an immediate knowledge. Bj abstraction we 
may think of space and time as distinct from objects 



230 Psychology. 



and events. We possess these original convictions : 
(1) Time and space have a reality independent of the per- 
cipient mind ; (2) Space and time are continuous ; (3) Space 
and time have and can have no limits. 

The Infinite. From the notion of Space, Time, 
and God arises the idea of the Infinite. As to our 
convictions, the following propositions may be stated : 

(1) The mind apprehends and believes that there is and 
must be something beyond its widest image and concept. 

(2) We apprehend and are constrained to believe in i^gard 
to the objects which we look upon as infinite that they are 
incapable of augmentation. 



PRIMITIVE JUDGMENTS. 

Kelation of Identity. We note intuitively the re- 
lation of Identity. Each believes himself the same 
person as in childhood ; an object has continuous be- 
ing as long as it exists. 

Relation of Whole and Parts. The individual 
intuitive judgments which the mind pronounces on 
looking at whole and parts may perhaps all be gen- 
eralized into two principles : (1) The parts make up the 
whole. (2) The whole is equal to the sum of its parts. 

Relations of Space. Here belong (1) the axioms of. 
mathematics which relate to limited extension, as, A 
straight line is the shortest distance between two points ; 
(2) certain axioms in regard to motion, as, All motion is 
in Space ; (3) the primitive truths that arise from the 
relation of objects to space, as, Bodies occupy space ; (4) 
certain metaphysical judgments as to space, as. Space 
is continuous. 



Appendix. 231 



Relations of Time. Examples : Time is continuous ; 
Every event happens in time. 

Relations of Quantity. These are relations of 
equality, difference, and proportion in numbers. The 
individual intuitive judgments of quantity generalized 
are stated by Euclid ; example, Things which are equal 
to the same thing are equal to one another. 

Relations of Resemblance. The following is one 
of the important intuitive propositions : Whatever is 
predicated of a class may be predicated of all the members 
of the class. 

Relations of Active Property. The mind declares, 
This property implies a substance ; This substance will ex- 
ercise a property ; etc. 

Relation of Cause and Effect. Every effect has a 
cause. 



MORAL CONVICTIONS. 

Convictions as to the Nature of Moral Good. 

(1) The moral quality is not given to the action by the 
mind contemj)lating it. (2) Moral good is moral good 
to all intelligences so high in the scale of being as to 
be able to discern it. (3) Moral good lays an obliga- 
tion on us to attend to it. (4) The conscience points to 
an authority above itself. (5) This obligation, when 
we are led to believe in a Supreme Being, takes the 
form of law. (6) Moral good is perceived as having 
desert, as approvable and rewardable. (7) Moral good 
lies in the region of the Avill. (8) Moral good is a 
quality of certain activities proceeding from Free 
Will. (9) The moral quality of actions can not be re- 
solved into anything simpler. 



232 Psycliology. 



On Sin and Error. (1) The conscience declares tliat 
sin is a reality. (2) Sin is a quality of voluntary acts. 

(3) Our moral convictions declare that sin is of evil 
desert, condemnable, punishable. 

Relation of Moral Good and Happiness. (1) The 
good is good altogether independent of the pleasure it 
may bring. (2) Our moral constitution declares that 
we ought to promote the happiness of all who are 
susceptible of happiness. (3) Our moral convictions 
affirm that moral good should meet with happiness. 

(4) Our moral convictions declare that sin merits pain 
as a punishment. 

Freedom of the Will. The will is free. 



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